4/24-4/26: Psychological Disorders

• Psychological Disorder = ongoing pattern of thoughts, feelings and actions that are deviant, distressful and/or dysfunctional
• has to be: deviant--------------> distressful
• has to be: deviant------->distressful-------->dysfunctional
• behavior judged to be atypical, disturbing, maladaptive and unjustifiable
• DSM-IV = classifies psychological disorders
• describes disorders
• no explanations of causes
• Defines Diagnostic process and 16 clinical syndromes
• DSM-IV Axes
• Axis 1: Clinical syndrome present?
• 16 clusters
• bigger motivator than 2 or 3
• Axis 2: Personality Disorder or Mental Retardation?
• Axis 3: General Medical Condition?
• Axis 4: Psychosocial or Environmental problems?
• Axis 5: Global Assessment of person's Functioning
• 0-100
• Axis 1: Clinical Disorders
• 16 Clusters of Syndromes
• Anxiety Disorders: distressing persistent anxiety or maladaptive anxiety-reducing behavior
• Generalized anxiety disorder: Continually tense and apprehensive but can't ID cause
• higher autonomic nervous system arousal
• tough sleep
• 2/3 women
• mistreated as children
• typically accompanied by depression
• not over age 50
• Panic disorder: Episodes of intense dread
• 1/75 people escalate into Panic Attacks = terror, chest pain, choking, trembling, dizziness
• Mistaken for heart attack
• Phobia: persistent, irrational fear and avoidance of specific object
• Specific phobias
• Social phobia: intense fear of being scrutinized by others
• Agoraphobia: fear of inescapable situations w/ no immediate help
• avoid elevators, outside home, crowds
• Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD): unwanted obsessions and/or compulsions
• Obsessions
• Persistent thoughts, ideas that invade person's consciousness
• Compulsions
• Repeated and rigid behaviors or mental acts people feel must perform to prevent/reduce anxiety
• Obsessions-------> Anxiety; Compulsions Reduce anxiety
• Anxiety rises if obsessions and compulsions avoided
• Typical Small scale Obsessions = Normal people
• Minor obsessions = adaptive
• rituals relieve stress
• Disorder = Interferes with normal social Functioning
• Time-consuming = rituals and obsessions
• Obsessions that something Terrible will happen
• excessive hand-washing
• Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD): reliving traumatic event repeatedly via:
• Symptoms
• Haunting Memories
• Nightmares
• Social withdrawal
• Anxiety 
• Insomnia 
• Symptoms present-  >= 4 Weeks
• How do Anxiety disorders Develop?
• Learning
• Classical conditioning- unpredictable and uncontrollable bad events
• ex: attacked on street. associate street with bad. fear elicited on streets
• Observational Learning brings about fears
• Operant Conditioning and OCD
• associate fear with stimuli- rituals
• Biology
• Genetic Predisposition - particular fears and anxiety
• Identical twins develop Similar Phobias together or apart
• Dissociative Disorders
• Dissociation: significant aspects of experiences are kept separate and distinct
• Individual experiences disruptions- typically response to traumatic event
• pretend happened someone else, get rid of stress
• Dissociative Identity Disorder (DID): 2 or more distinct and alternating Personalities
• each personality = own Voice and Mannerisms
• Alters = Dramatically Different characteristics
• Vital statistics:
• e.g. age, sex, race, and family history
• Abilities and Preferences: Encyclopedic knowledge affected in DID
• alters have different areas of expertise
• Unique set of memories, behaviors, thoughts, and emotions = Alters
• One dominates at a time
• Primary/host personality = appear more often, who you are
• Transition = sudden and dramatic
• 100 Alters maximum
• Typical types of Alters:
•  Host- Exhausted and Depressed
• Protector - Strong, Angry
• Child - Scared, Hurt
• Helper
• Persecutor blaming one or more of the alters
• Used to think 2 or 3 alters
• now 15 = women 8= men
• Late Adolescence or Early Adulthood = Cases
• Symptoms begin = before age 5
• How Common?
• 1000s
• Reasons:
• Clinicians Willing to make diagnosis
• Diagnostic----->Accurate
• Cons: All Cases = Iatrogenic (Artificial)
• unintentionally produced by Practitioners
• DID cases surfaced After treatment
• Legitimacy = ??  Reluctant to Diagnose
• Support for DID
• Different Personalities = Different Memories
• Test Differently
• Differ Physiologically
• voice, facial expressions, handwriting, allergies, 
• Handedness differentiation
• Criticisms for DID
• 50% Denial
• 2 per decade 1930-1960------> 20,000 in 1980s
• # Alters: 3 to 12
• Twin studies = No Genetic link
• Mood Disorders
• Emotional Extremes
• Major Depressive disorder = 2 or more Weeks of Irrational Depression
• feelings of worthlessness, diminished interest 
• Bipolar disorder: Alternating between Depression and Mania
• Mania: state of euphoria and great energy with grandiose optimism and self-esteem
• Depression
• common
• Women = 2x Likely
• Internalized response
• ~50% recover = 6 weeks, 90% = year
• most 1 other episode at some point
• Symptoms differ dramatically for individuals
• other aspects than sadness
• 5 main areas of Functioning affected:
• Emotional symptoms
• Motivational symptoms
• Everything requires Effort
• Behavioral symptoms
• exceedingly Negative self-view
• Cognitive symptoms
• Distracted Easily
• Physical symptoms
• Arm hurts but not physical cause
• Symptoms Exacerbate each other
• Stress = Trigger
• More stressful events genereal predate depression
• focus: Situation and Internal aspects
• Genetic factors
• Biological Predisposition
• Relatives = 20%
• General Population = 10%
• Neurotransmitters: Serotonin and Norepinephrine
• Serotonin = feel good
• Norepinephrine = energizer
• 1950s blood pressure medications caused depression
• lowered serotonin, lowered norepinephrine
• Socio-Cognitive factors
• Learned Helplessness
• Thinking of Event = Crucial
• depressed when think that:
• No Control over Reinforcements in lives
• Responsible for Helpless state
• Attribution theory focus (Explanatory style)
•  Negative events attributes---> Internal, Global and Stable 
• Negative Explanatory style = Blame Self 
• Positive Explanatory style = Blame Others
• = Helplessness and possibly Depression
• positive = blame environment
• No Hopelessness = No Depression
• Socio-Cultural Causes
• Social Support = Key
• Perceived Availability of Social Support
• Marital status
• Isolation and Lack of Intimacy 
• Cycle of Depression
• #1 Stressful Experience
• #2 Negative Explanatory Style
• #3 Depressed mood
• #4 Cognitive and Behavioral changes------> #1 again
• Bipolar disorder
• Onset = 15 to 44 years of age
• Episodes Subside eventually but Recur later
• Equally Common
• Mania Symptoms (5)
• Emotional
• Active, powerful search of outlet
• Motivational
• Need for Excitement, Involvement, Companionship
• Behavioral
• Very Active - Move and Talk Rapidly
• Cognitive
• Overly Optimistic and prone to Poor Judgment/ No Planning
• Physical
• High Energy - little to no rest
• Causes of Depression v Bipolar
• Originally thought relationship b/w high Norepinephrine levels and mania
• Low Serotonin may permit Norepinephrine activity to define form disorder will take
• Low Serotonin + Low Norepinephrine = Depression
• Low Serotonin + High Norepinephrine = Bipolar
• Schizophrenia
• Misconceptions:
• NOT Dissociative Identity disorder
• DO NOT tend to be Violent toward self or others
• Not all cases = Chronic
• 1/3 Chronic 1/3 Episodes 1/3 Complete Remission
• 10% = Hospitalized Life
• Prevalence
• 1/100 people world
• Equal across Gender
• Men get symptoms = Earlier
• Lower levels = More Frequently
• Previously "catachall" diagnosis
• much more refined today's DSM

4/17 and 4/24: Social Psychology- Attitudes+the Self, Relationships

Attitude

• Attitude: categorize stimulus along an evaluative dimension based on 3 components:
• Affective: emotions and affection (positive or negative)
• Behavioral: how you act toward object
• Cognitive: thoughts you have about the object (facts, knowledge, beliefs)
• Attitudes affect behavior?
• Attitudes = Poor predictors of actions
• Changing attitudes typical fail changing behavior
• LaPiere (1934)
• 92% said wouldn't accept Chinese guests
• All but 1 accepted them
• What Attitudes Affect behavior?
• Strong attitudes
• Important attitudes
• Easily Accessed attitudes
• Formed via Direct Experience attitudes
• Certain to you attitudes
• Attitude Theories
• Cognitive Dissonance Theory (Festinger 1957)
• Dissonance: psychological tension results behavior inconsistent w/ attitudes
• reduce dissonance and regain consistency 
• Dissonance Reduction methods
• Change behavior
• quit smoking
• Trivialize dissonance
• Change attitudes
• weakness in studies linking smoking to cancer
• Add cognitions
• help me relax
• Example of Reducing Dissonance - Smoking
• Change Cognition A: I smoke-----> I don't smoke
• Change Cognition B: I smoke cigarettes + Research has Flaws instead of truth
• Add Cognition C: I smoke + Diseases+ They help me= relax
• Do all Inconsistent behaviors cause Dissonance?
• Cooper and Fazio, 1984
• No. Experience dissonance, behavior must be:
• Freely chosen
• Negative foreseeable consequences
• Responsible for choice felt
• Label arousal as negative
• believe arousal caused by something else, no dissonance
• Subtypes of Dissonance
• Insufficient Justification
• Fraternity initiation- think fraternity awesome to justify hazing
• Festinger and Carlsmith, 1959 - peg turning task
• Aronson and Mills, 1959(initiation into group)
• Post-decision dissonance
• Brehm, 1965: Difficult choice between 2 equally desirable items
• e.g. Droid vs Iphone
• Ignore Pros of other
• Spreading of alternatives
• Maximize difference in your decision's favor
• "I always knew she was the one"
• Compliance Techniques (4) (Cialdini)
• Foot-in-the-door technique: inducing a person to agree small request 1st
• Example: Wear Campaign Button; later, Ask for Billboard on their Lawn
• Why work
• Cognitive dissonance theory: desire to appear consistent in choices
• Door-in-the-face technique: Large request, then Smaller request
• Why work
• want to appear reasonable and good and maintain self-esteem
• Reducing request = Favor; Complying = Reciprocation
• Low-ball technique: ask someone agree to something basis of incomplete info
• becoming attached positively to object
• bid more/pay more than if knew all info
• That's-not-all technique: product high price, improve deal via adding product or lowering price
• salseman = reasonable, doing favor; reciprocate favor by buying

Self

• Synyder's Self-Monitoring Scale (Self-esteem = SE)
• degree regulate behavior match situation
• High Self-monitor 
• Social Chameleons
• Public self used
• Third Person talk
• Public self-consciousness Higher
• Pros
• Do Well in Social Situations
• Cons
• Insincere; Fake 
• Low Self-monitor 
• Consistent across situations
• Private self used
• First person speech
• Private self-consciousness Higher
• Pros
• People Know you
• Cons
• potential Social Ramifications
• Self-esteem- positive and negative self-evaluations
• State of Mind vs. Trait
• State of Mind = Situation dependent
• Trait = Same regardless
• Functions
• Leary (1995): Sociometer hypothesis
• High vs Low Self-Esteem
• High SE
• Highly Positive self-views
• Successful coping stressful times and setbacks
• More Thorough and Precise Self-knowledge
• Low SE
• Pessimistic; prone to thinking failure
• Adverse reactions to negative feedback
• Unrealistic goals tendency
• Enhancing Self-estemm: BIRGing
• BIRGing ( = Basking In Reflected Glory
• Cialdini 1976
•  Football games affect University T-shirts use
• Win = more
• Lose = less
• Larger Margin of victory = Larger # of shirts
• "We" won vs. "They" lost
• CORFing = Cutting Off Reflected Failure
• Association Hurts SE = Cut off ties
• Self-esteem Maintenance Model
• Tesser, 1988
• People behave in manner maintain self-esteem
• How does another's performance Affect us?
• Influence depends:
• Quality of performance
• Closeness of other
• Relevance of dimension
• Factors interact different ways to maintain self-esteem
• Close other X good performance X non relevant dimension = increased self evaluation by reflection (BIRGing)
• Close other X good performance X relevant dimension = decreased SE by comparison (downward comparison)
• What happens when SE suffers?
• Close other Outperforms Self on Relevant dimension:
• Sabotage Other's performance
• Alter Self's performance
• Alter Closeness with Other
• Change self-definition

Relationships

• Evolutionary Theory
• "Marketplace theory" 
• Women = Value Status 
• Men = Value Attractiveness
• Gender difference in Personal ads
• High income man seek attractive woman
• Attractive woman seek well off man
• Attractive women more likely marry successful men
• Why?
• Function of ability to Propagate Genes (Buss 1988,1989,1990)
• Male reproductive success = frequent pairings
• Female's reproductive success = finding provider
• Female's Youth-----> fertility sign
• Male's Status-------> ability to provide
• Support
• Men more likely to prefer youth and appearance = most important
• Women more likely look for "ambition, hard-working"
• Gender differences in Jealousy
• Buss, Larsen, Westen, Semmelroth (1992)
• Gender differences in Mate Preferences----> gender differences in Jealousy
• Asked imagine past relationship; Asked which Worse- Emotional or Sexual Betrayal
• Differences
• Men = 60% Sexual behavior worse
• Women = 80% Emotional worse
• Jealously- function of evolution
• Male = function of Reproductive Uncertainty
• don't know for certain baby = theirs
• Female = function of Resource Uncertainty
• money and house = certain ? 
• Cons
• Can't do Experiments
• Another explanation for Jealousy Differences
• Double-shot theory: one infidelity implies other has happened too
• woman = man's emotional infidelity implies sexual infidelity has occurred
• man = woman's sexual infidelity implies emotional infidelity has occurred
• theory has been experimentally tested
• Communal vs. Exchange relationships (all relationships)
• Communal vs. Exchange (Clark and Mills 1979)
• Exchange: Tit-for-tat
• Communal: Expectations of Mutual Responsiveness
• Communal = Close friendships and Meaningful relationships
• Exchange = Superficial relationships w/ strangers and acquaintances
• Exchange
• Immediate repayment
• helped by acquaintance, repay it
• Want Own Contribution to be Distinguished
• Care about other's needs = Expecting Payback
• Helping each other = no change in mood
• Communal
• Immediate repayment may cause decreased in liking
• immediate repay = no trust of having back in future
• No clear distinction b/w our work and others
• " you did it. no, we did it"
• Care about other's needs even w/out payback
• trust they care/ will get your back sometime later
• Helping other = feel good
• Beginning of most friendships
• Michelangelo Phenomenon (romantic relationships)
• Self does not emerge independently; shaped by interpersonal experience
• Sculpting: mold each other's dispositions values and behavioral tendencies over time to reveal ideal self
• "Chip away" some aspects = reveal partner's ideal self
• Affirmation: partner elicits values and behaviors that are congruent with the self's ideal
• Partner Perceptual affirmation: degree to partner's perceptions of the self is congruent with ideal self
• See partner's true self
• Partner Behavioral affirmation: degree to partner's behaviors toward self is congruent with ideal self
• Bring out partner's true self
• Problems with Sculpting
• Sculpting = continuum ranging form
• Affirmation----> Failure to affirm-----> Disaffirmation
• Failure to Affirm: Partner elicits dispositions, values and behaviors that may be irrelevant to self’s ideal 
• Disaffirmation: Partner elicits dispositions, values and behaviors that may be antithetical to self’s ideal  
• Michelangelo Phenomenon
• At Best: Perceptual Affirmation----> Behavioral Affirmation-----> Self movement toward Ideal-----> Couple Well-being
• partner----------------->ideal self
• At Worst: Perceptual Disaffirmation-----> Behavioral Disaffirmation-----> Movement Away from Ideal-----> Deterioration of Couple Well-being
• ideal self... partner-------------------->
• Myths about Conflict
• Conflict can Always be Avoided
• Conflict = result from Misunderstandings and Unnecessary
• Conflict = Sign of Poor relationship
• How we deal with it
• Bad fights: Goal = Win
• Good fights: Goal = Compromise
• 4 types of Fighting Couples - John Gottman 
• Volatile: conflict part of a larger passionate and loving relationship
• big fight, bigger make-up
• 5-1 ratio
• Validaters: Fair, Equal fights
• self-control and calm; validate other perspective
• 5-1 ratio
• Avoiders: Fight, Go away, Everything's fine
• "agree to disagree"
• 5-1 ratio
• Hostile: Frequent volatile fights
• 1-1 ratio
• 4 horsemen of the apocalypse: 
• Contempt
• "eye-rolling"
• Criticism
• Defensiveness
• Withdrawing 
• 5-1 ratio = Good
• Demand-Withdraw cycle
• One partner demands change, other partner withdraws
• Women = 2x likely make demand ; Why?
• Conflict-structure hypothesis: Women Most Want Change; Changer likely occupy Demand Role
• Women = less power ; want change more
• Cycle
• W demands, M withdraws
• W demands because M withdrew
• M withdraws because W's demands escalate
• W becomes frustrated at M's withdrawal

4/12: Personality - Eysenck and Big Five; Social Psychology Part 1

Eysenck

• Introversion/Extroversion (1)
• Introvert (I) - quieter, reserved, routine, to themselves
• Extrovert (E)- louder, sociable, unpredictable, needs others
• Emotional Stability/Instability (2)
• 4 Types of People 
• Sanguine
• Phlegmatic
• Melancholic
• Choleric
• Eysenck's Theory
• I = higher level of stimulation ARAS
• E= lower level of stimulation
• Gale's Optimal level = apt stimulation for task wanted
• Eysenck's Theory Revised
• I = More Arousability
• NOT higher level

Big 5

• O.C.E.A.N.
• Openess
• curious novel ideas, unconventional
• Conscientiousness
• organization, plan-oriented, meticulous 
• Extraversion
• extrovert/introvert
• Agreeableness
• cooperative, accommodating, no conflict
• Neuroticism
• sadness, anxiety
• Big 5 Criticisms
• Openess = Troublesome 5th factor
• content and replicability
• many different labels
• Not necessarily Comprehensive: other traits such as masculinity suggested
• Evaluating Personality Inventories
• Pros
• Easier, cheaper and faster to administer than Projective
• Objectively scored and standardized
• Appear = Greater Reliability and Validity
• not highly valid= can't analyze from MMPI alone
• Cons
• Tests fail to allow cultural differences in responses
• Measured traits cannot be directly examined

Social Psychology

• Definition: study of how we think about, influence, and relate to each other
• Power of:
• Situation
• Person
• Importance of Cogntition
• Focuses on 
• Interpersonal level of analysis
• 'Normal' populations; reaction of average individual to situation
• Empirical - experiments, data
• Social Influence and Conformity
• Social Influence: how other people and groups influences individual's behavior
• 3 types of changing one's behavior
• Conformity: consistent with Group Norms
• least coercive
• Compliance: Direct Request
• Obedience: Order from Authority Figure
• most coercive
• Conformity
• Two Reasons Why
• Informational influence
• Normative influence
• Informational social influence
• others = source of info
• desire to be right
• believe others can interpret ambiguous situation
• others can help us choose apt course of action
• Sherif, 1936
• Autokinetic effect - how fast light moved
• Asked how fast moving
• First alone
• Later in groups
• call out estimates
• Results: people's answers converged
• When Conform
• Situation = Ambiguous
• most crucial variable
• Situation = Crisis
• limited time, others intensify panic
• Others = Experts
• looked to; not always reliable
• Normative social influence
• Social norms: implicit/explicit rules for acceptable behavior
• Greatest Influence
• Uncertain Conditions
• Similar Source
• Concerned about Relationship with Source
• Most Salient norm = Influence behavior
• How react to unambiguous stimuli?
• Asch study = one seen @ class with confederates saying wrong answer on line comparisons
• 76% conformed with wrong answer at least wrong
• Didn't want to look foolish; knew right answer though
• How do we know this isn't informational social conformity?
• Private responding = didn't conform
• Why do we Conform?
• Informational influence: others' behavior ---> info
• More Ambiguity-----> More Likely Conform
• Leads to Private Acceptance
• Normative influence: Social Approval
• Asch studies
• Leads to Public Compliance
• Normative Social Influence in our Lives
• Social Influence and Women's Body Image
• Social Influence: Women from Heavier----->Thinner
• eating disorder
• Social Influence and Men's Body Image
• Social Influence: Men Stronger
• steroids, aggression
• Consequences of Not Conforming
• Convincing Deviant to Conform, e.g. 1st = Talking; 2nd = Punishing; 3rd = Ignoring
• Remain Deviant = Social Rejection
• Idiosyncratic credits
• allowed to deviate a little if conformed a lot
• Power of Obedience
• Crimes of Obedienc
• The Nazis, A few Good men
• Milgram's Shock generator
• recruit via newspaper
• confederate = participant in disguise
• expresses concern about heart condition
• confederate gets answers wrong------>participant shocks confederate
• Shock Recipient (recorded response)
• interjects----> owww----> begs to leave due to heart----->absolute silence
• Absolute silence: no response = wrong response -----> Shock
• Obeyed up to Very Strong Shock
• Over 60% shocked person at Death level
• Results of Obedience Levels:
• Research Command = 65%
• Fellow Subject Command = 20%
• Victim Command = 0%
• Two Researchers w/ Contrary Commands = 0%
• Message: Authority's Order = Crucial
• Why do we Obey Authority Figures?
• Motivation Choose Correctly
• Authorities = Experts
• Short-cut ---> Choosing Correctly

4/10: Personality - Jung, Alder, and Horney

• Overview of Neo-Analytic theorists
• Carl Jung
• self-hood
• Alfed Adler
• inferiority and goals
• Karen Horney
• new conception of women
• Neo-Analytic Movement
• Freud's psychoanalysis-----> new directions
• Emphasize Ego more important than ID
• Ego = sense of self arises throughout conflict and interactions with others
• Eventual discarding of Freudian ID but still emphasized motivations ans social interactions
• Social Variables= Important
• Less Bio, More Social, more Optimistic
• Carl Jung - Selfhood 
• Fight with Freud Centered on
• Spirtuality > Sexuality
• Disputed Freud's strcture of mind
• Personal and Collective unconscious
• Jund divived mind into 3 parts
• Concscious Ego
• Personal Unconscious
• Collective Unconscious ( original part)
• Collective Unconscious (unique to Jung)
• Deeper level, collective memory with humanity like genetic code
• made up of archetypes
• Archetypes: powerful emotional symbols common to all people that predispose us to act in predetermined ways
• cause of mental disorders = fail acknowledge unacceptable archetypes in collective unconsicous
• examples
• Animus(male) and Anima(female) sides of personality
• Mother vs Father
• Birth vs Death
• Persona (self) and Shadow ( destructive tendencies of self)
• Hero and Demon
• Modern Psych doubts existence of Collective Unconscious
• believes shared interests
• Jung's Principal of Opposites (Traits): Traits are favored among opposing pairs of tendencies/dispositions and comprise personality
• Evaluating Jung's Contributions
• Cons
• No objective observation or testing
• Pros
• Challenged Freud = opened door to alternate personality theories
• Notion of Personality Types: pillar of trait type approach
• Alfred Adler - Inferiority and Goals
• Fight with Freud
• Goal Directedness = Main Motivator
• Development governed by goals
• Goals unify personality
• Fictional finalism:  no hindrances of inferiority complexes in front of fictional goals, motivating but never achieved
• Future-oriented
• Concerned with Social Conditions
• Preventative measures to avoid Disturbance in Personality
• Adler's Key Aspects
• Early childhood experiences
• Key = Overcoming Inferiority
• Compensatory process
• Strive for Superiority
• Birth order- creates expectations and goals
• Future experiences
• Lifestyle = response
• Healthy: Adaptive ways of responding
• Mistaken: Maladaptve ways of responding
• Goals
• Future-oriented
• Unify persoanlity
• Governs Development
• Fictional Finalism
• Guiding self-ideal each person
• Motivating yet never achieved
• Partly known
• Not competitive
• Inferiority
• Inferior feelings drive personality
• Motivating force
• Origins in Infancy
• Not considered abnormal
• Inferiority Complex - pervasive feelings of helplessness and sadness
• Defense = Superiority complex
• false feelings of power and security to conceal inferiority complex
• Birth Order
• Based on interactions with siblings
• Different types of parental attention
• Influence goals
• 4 Types Birth Orders
• First-born: Exaggerated sense of own Importance
• dethronement = feared
• competitive; concerned about being replaced/surpassed
• Second-born: Less sensitive to Power issues, High achiever
• inferiority of comparison to first born motivates them
• Youngest child: Spoiled which Undermines Survival desire
• Only Child: Non-Dethroned First Born
• strange adaptations in school
• Support:
• Biology confounded with rearing order; Not totally supported
• Adler's Contributions
• Cons
• Not all hypotheses supported by research
• first born and only child = higher levels of achievement
• Idea on need for power shapes behavior = Influential
• Karen Horney -  New Conception of Women
• Rejected penis envy idea
• Reason for inferior feeling:
• Social position and independence
• Upbringing
• masculine vs femininty
• Men might be unconsicously envious of feminine qualitites
• Agreed on Freudian idea of unconscious motivations in childhood
• Believed:
• Basic Anxiwty = Child discovers own helplesness
• Internal anxiety focused out and in
• Neurotic = basic anxiety out of control
• People can mainfest neurotic needs to extremes
• Neurotic Coping Strategies
• Moving Toward Others
• Neurotice Need: Constant reminders of Love and Approval
• Moving Against others
• Neurotic Need: Power and Social Recognition
• Moving Away from Others
• Neurotic Need: Personal Admiration and Perfection
• Horney's Contributions
• Cons
• Weak Scientific foundation
• Lack of Operation terms, 
• Difficult to Test
• Trait Perspective
• Personality inventories: gauge wide range of feelings and behaviors
• Objective scoring, not subjective
• Personality type = Genes + Environment 
• even animals have personalities
• Is Personality Stable? (Yes)
• Stability in Personality and Behavior patterns Over Time
• People are consistently inconsistent- similar patterns across same situations
• Time Frame and Traumatic Events need to be taken into account
• Personality inventories
• measure broad personality characteristics
• focus on behavior, beliefs, and feelings
• based on self-reported responses
• Most Widely Used
• MMPI Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory
• Eysenck's Introversion/Extroversion
• Big Five
• MMPI
• 550 self-statements answered: T, F, Cannot Say
• Phsycial concerns, mood, morale, attitudes toward establishments, psychological symptoms
• now look at patterns, before spike on one scale only
• 84% original questions, revised in 1977 establish new normals
• Assesses Careless Responding and Lying
• when put front, when careless
• 10 Clinical Scales: 0-120 score
• > 70 = Deviant (psych disorders)
• Graphed= Create Profile

4/5 : Freud and Personality

•  Levels of Focus (3)
• Societal level- trends of social behavior
• Sociology
• No research or experiments; Description method
• Individual level- unique life history and psychological characteristics
• Clinical and Personality psychologists
• P = average C = troubled
• Differentiation
• Interpersonal level- person's social situation
• Social psychologists
• S = average + environment
• Behavior Elicited from Environment
• Personality: individual's characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling, and acting
• differ = individual personality
• Perspectives
• Freud's Psychodynamic
• Neo-Freudians
• Trait perspective

Freud Psychoanalytic Psychoanalysis: thoughts and actions---> unconscious motives and conflicts

• Unconsicous: portion nonaccessible to conscious thought
• Access via Talking Methods:
• Free Association
• say anything comes to mind - reveal 
• Dream Analysis
• playground for infantile unconscious wished
• Paraphraxes
• slip of tounge reveal insight
• filter out unconscious 
• Personality arises from: Aggressive Pleasure-seeking Impulses vs Social Constraints
• Transference: social mental scripts
• ID = basic drives (It)
• most primitive part of mind; innate
• aggrssion, lust, sexuality death
• primarily unconscious
• Operates = Pleasure Principle ----> Wish Fulfillment
• Strives to Satisfy Basic Drives to Reduce Inner Tension
• Unrealistic Thinking
• Ego = Reality Check (I)
• Constrains Id to Reality
• 2-3 years of age
• All levels of consciousness
• Reality Principle
• what's possible given situation
• Secondary process thinking
• rational; weighing things out
• Mediator between ID and Superego, ID and Reality
• Superego = Morality (Over I)
• Internalizes Values, Morals, Norms, and Ideals of society
• Develops around age 5
• All levels of consciousnesses too
• Perfection Principle
• how you, things, ought to be
• Ego Ideal
• Conscience
• Introjection - incorporate parents' values
• Conscious
• Working Memory; Awarness
• Preconscious
• Ordinary memory easily brought into awareness
• Unconscious
• Unawareness
• Psychosexual Stages of Development
• Conflict not resolved = Fixation
• Fixation = emotionally stuck at a given stage
• less energy to confront later stages
• Stages
• Oral
• Anal
• Phallic
• Latency
• Genital
• 1st 3 stages = Most Important
• forms personality by age 5
• major sources of physical stimulation
• Oral Stage- 18 months after birth
• Pleasure and tension reduction = mouth, lips, tongue
• Primary conflict = weaning
• Secondary conflict- biting
• Key aspect: Dependency 
• determinant of fixation = parents' reactions to baby's needs
• Overindulge = Fixation
• Undergratified = Reluctant Leave Stage
• Fixated Oral Receptive = dependent, orally preoccupied
• Fixated- Oral Aggressive = Pleasure from biting---> verbal aggression and biting sarcasm
• Anal stage: 18 months - 3 years; Pooping
• Key Aspect: Self Control
• Conflict - self-control and toilet training
• Praised by parents = productive and creative
• Shamed by parents = fixated
• Anal Expulsive: messy, cruel, destructive, potty mouth
• Anal Retentive: everything has to be in order
• Phallic Stage: 3-5 years of age ; Ejaculation
• Key aspect: Close personal relationship w/ parents = Self Worth
• Oedipal Complex, castration anxiety = rendered impotent; compete for mom
• resolution = id with father---> masculine identity
• Electra Complex, penis envy = penis source of power; compete for dad
• id with mom----> feminine identity
• Identification = reduces guilt-laden hostility and ambivalence for same sex parent
• represents beginning of internalization of superego
• Fixation 
• Men: alpha male
• Women: tease
• Latency stage: 6- Puberty
• Lack of Specific Sexual Conflicts
• Consolidate Superego, focuses intellectual development
• Genital Stage: Puberty - Death
• Reached via resolving conflicts prior stages
• Focus: Mutual Sexual Gratification
• Anxiety and Defense Mechanisms
• Ego Battles ID, Superego and outsideworld
• creates conflict = anxiety
• Activated defense mechanisms fight anxiety
• unconscious ways rid anxiety
• Defense Mechanisms
• Repression -   Threatening Thoughts----> Unconscious
• Reaction Formation - Exact Opposition to Unconscious Desires
• Denial-   Refuse acknowldedge anxiety provoking events
• Projection-   Anxiety provoking Impulses----->People have them
• Sublimation-   Dangerous Urges-----> Socially Acceptable Behavior
• Regression-   Return to earlier 'safer' time
• Rationalization-  Logical explanations for Impulse driven Behavior
• Displacement-  Reaction from Real Source-----> Safer individual/object
• Projective Tests Measure Unconscious
• Interpret Vague and Ambiguous Stimuli ; Open-ended instructions
• no anxiety to defend
• Used by Psychodynamic practicioners
• Most popular
• Rorschach- ambiguous stimuli, ink blots
• Breakdown
• What seen
• Where seen
• What Features used
• At least 14 responses
• ~50 min take. 95 minutes interpret
• Thematic Appreciation (TAT)
• Reveals unconscious fantasies
• Tell story of people in drawing
• Themes = focus
• not structure of personality
• Sentence completion: clincial test, fill in blanks of sentences
• I wish _______
• Draw-a-Person (DAP) test
• "Draw a person"
• "Draw another person of the opposite sex"
• Criteria
• Quality of drawing
• screens for cognitive maturity, adjustment, impusliveness
• Overall mood of drawing
• convey's person views
• Specific details
• unusual characteristics 
• Integrated with other info of person
• Diagnostic tool
• Evalutating Projective tests
• Pros
• allow to provide info not available from self report tests
• useful when hesitation to acquire negative info
• Cons
• hours to score and interpret
• adds little info beyond other tests
• rarely showed reliability or validity
• overpathologize
• may be biased against minority ethnic groups
• Take home message
• useful supplementary info
• not used as diagnostic tool
• Major Freudian Weaknesses
• Pessimistic
• emphasizes early experiences and destructive inner urges
• first 5 years personality determined
• Difficult to Study Empirically and Disconfirm
• Explain = Always
• Predict = Never
• Lifetime development or later relationships
• Male behavior is the norm and superior; hetero is only way
• Freudian Contributions
• Scientific exploration of:
• Personality 
• Behavior
• Sexuality =Motivating Force
• Importance of 
• Childhood in Shaping Personality
•  Unconscious

Exam 2 Review Session

• Intermittent Reinforcement Schedules
• Fixed: stays the same
• Fixed Interval- set time period
•  Fixed Ratio - set quantity
• Variable: varies each time
• Variable Interval- unpredictable time period each time
• 10 minutes then 4 seconds
• Variable Ratio- unpredictable amount of number each time
• 4 then 7 then 3
• most resistant to extinction
• Top-Down processing vs Bottom-Up processing ( Happens Simultaneously)
• Bottom-Up = Sensory info----Memory
• Processing raw sensory info
• Sensation
• Top-Down = Perceiving info----- assign Meaning
• Thinking, Memory, Attention
• Perception
• Recency vs Primary Effect - Serial Position effect
• Primary - 1st things remembered; Longest Time to process info
• Recency- Last things remembered; Most Fresh
• Retrograde Amnesia vs Antregrade Amnesia
• Antregrade- new memories cannot be formed
• damage to Hippocampus
• left - verbal memories
• right - visual memories
• also can be cause by damage to prefrontal cortex
• Korsakoff’s syndrom
• Confabulations
• Retrograde - old memories can't be retrieved
• Interference
• Proactive - old info affects learning of new info
• locker combination
• Retroactive - new info takes place of old info
• forget old telephone number 
• Heuristics
• Availability - readily available then it must happen often
• Difference Threshold (JND) vs Absolute Threshold
• JND
• minimum difference we can detect half of the time
• e.g. someone changing volume of music
• Weber's Law
• JND measured in proportion % rather than an amount
• 1 ounce to 10 ounce weight - noticed; 1 ounce to 100 ounce - unnoticed
• Absolute Threshold
• minimum amount of stimulus needed to detect something half of the time
• predicting something being there; e.g. hearing distant sounds
• varies with age
• Subliminal Messaging
• doesn't work in everyday life
• TV media violence
• can't say there's a causation
• can say there's a definite relationship with large-size effect
• makes violence more accessible in mind
• Intelligence Theories
• g = Spearman
• factor analyses multiple = Thurstone
• Thurnstone and Spearman Hierarchical agreement
• 8 Intelligences = Gardner
• Savant Syndrome = Gardner
• 3 Aspects of Intelligence = Sternberg
• Analytical
• Creative
• Practical
• 5 Concepts of Creativity = Sternberg

3/29: Intelligence

• * Do NOT have to study Stereotype Threat
• Intelligence- mental quality consisting of ability to learn from experience, solve problems, and use knowledge to adapt to new situations
• Measurement of Intelligence
• General Ability or Several Specific Abilities?
• Disagreement on Correlates
• Considered a Concept
• Intelligence = General Ability?
• Charles Spearman: ONE general intelligence (g) underlies specific mental abilities
• score high on one factor, score high on others
• Thurstone
• pioneer of Multiple Factor Analyses
• Several Factors found by statistical analyses on exams of various intellectual abilites 
• given labels such as verbal comprehension, numerical ability, spatial reasoning, and memory
• Gardner: we have independent multiple intelligences
• Gardner's 8 Intelligences
• verbal, spatial, understanding self, nature, math, movement, understanding others, music
• Savant Syndrome: limited mental capacities but an island of exceptional talent
• Hierarchical compromise  between Spearman and Thurstone
• model in which specific abilities existed and were important but were all somewhat related to another and a global general intelligence
• Robert Sternberg: Three Aspects of intelligence
• Analytical: intelligence tests
• Practical: required for everyday tasks
• Creative: adapting to new situations, generating new ideas
• Intelligence vs Creativity
• Creativity: ability to produce novel and valuable ideas
• Intelligence = Creativity
• score 120 necessary but not sufficient for creativity
• very creative, don't tend extreme intelligence
• Convergent vs Divergent thinking
• Convergent = one right answer ; intelligence
• Divergent = multiple answers ; creativity
• sometimes subject to expectations and pressures
• Sternberg's 5 Components of Creativity
• Expertise - some knowledge of what you're being creative with
• Imaginative Thinking Skills - ability to see things in new ways
• Venturesome Personality - tolerate ambiguity, overcome obstacles, talk to many people
• Intrinsic Motivation- not reliant on external rewards
• Creative Environment - mentor, access to internet, etc.
• Emotional Intelligence: managing and understanding emotion
• 4 Components
• Perceive emotions - recognize
• Understand emotions - comprehend the type of emotion
• Manage emotions - help others/self
• Use emotions
• positively correlated with increased job performance
• How Measure Intelligence?
• Small correlation of +.15 head size and intelligence score
• Larger correlation of +.33 brain volume and intelligence score
• more intelligent, more brain synapses
• take in info more quickly and faster brain wave responses to stimuli
• look how individuals think and solve problems
• Trial and error
• Algorithm: step by step procedures
• Insight: solution comes to mind suddenly
• Heuristics: mental shortcuts, rules of thumb
• Heuristics: mental shortcuts to make quick and efficient judgments
• help select apt schema to use for processing
• 4 main types
• Availability heuristic
• Representativeness heuristic
• Anchoring and Adjustment heuristic
• Simulation heuristic
• Availability heuristic: base judgement on ease with which they can bring something to mind
• Representativeness heuristic: classify something on how similar is to a typical case (schema)
• e.g. quiet and organized representss librarian more than manager
• not a problem unless ignore base rate information
• Anchoring and Adjustment heuristic: uses number or value as starting point and adjusts one's answer away from anchor
• don't often adjust away from anchor enough
• most common anchor = self
• Simulation heuristic: ease of imagining something happening, influences reactions to it
• e.g. bronze medalists happier than silver medalists
• Intelligence test: assessing mental aptitudes and comparing to others
• Francis Galton: 1st psychologist to develop mental tests
• measures now outdated
• all intelligent people together, breed more intelligent race
• IQ test
• first made by Alfred Binet
• assumed all children follow same intellectual development
• Mental age: age at which child was performing at, relative to chronological age
• goal: ID children that needed help
• Lewis Terman
• Binet's norms didn't fit Californian children
• Adapted Binet's IQ test
• Stanford-Binet (SB) Intelligence Quotient
• IQ= mental age/chronological age x 100
• worked for children but not adults
• Current IQ test
• represents test-taker's ability relative to average performance of other own age
• average = 100
• WAIS: most commenly used intelligence test
• yields single full-scale intelligence score, 4 index scores and 12 specific subset scores
• Hierarchical model of intelligence with "g" and specific areas of ability "s"
• Like SB IQ, raw scores compared with age-based experiences
• average = 100 standard deviation = 15
• 2 Types of Mental Ability tests
• Aptitude tests: predict ability to learn new skill (SAT)
• Achievement tests: reflect what you already know (exams)
• Analogies: measure both aptitude and achievement
• Principals of Test Construction
• 3 Criteria
• Standardized
• Reliable
• Valid
• Standardized: person's performance meaningfully compared to others
• Reliable: dependably consistent scores
• two halves of test
• re-testing
• SB, and WAIS have +.9 reliability
• Valid: measures what it's supposed to
• Predictive validity: predict later performance
• Nature vs Nurture in Intelligence
• Genetic component
• Identical twins reared together = virtually same score
• Identical twins reared apart scores suggests 70% of intelligence is genetic
• ranges 50-75%
• Genes importnat to intelligence and learning disabilities
• Polygenetic: many genes involved, each less than 1% of variance in intelligence
• Environmental component
• adoption enhances intelligence scores of mistreated and neglected children
• fraternal twins tend score alike based on how treated
• Plomin and DeFries
• Adopted and children's scores correlate highly with birth parents

3/27: Application of Memory

• Eyewitness Testimony
• Eyewitness are often wrong!!
• Why are Eyewitnesses Wrong? - 3 Stages of Eyewitness Error
• Acquisition: Info Perceived
• Storage: Info Stored in Memory
• Retrieval: Info Retrieved Later Time
• Acquisition, Stage 1
• Influential Factors
• Time viewing event, night, Lighting conditions
• Brief Exposure, Poor Lighting, etc.
• Narrowed Focus
• Arousal and Emotions
• Weapons-focus effect
• weapon present, difficult to pay attention to culprit or anything else
• Own-Race Bias: people are better at recognizing faces of their own race than others
• Familiarity with own race but not other races
• "They all look alike"
• mock witnesses likely to accuse people of other races
• Platz and Hosch, 1988
• Clerks recognized more customers that were of their own race
• Storage, Stage 2
• Misinformation effect: tendency for False Positive info to become part of people's memory of an event
• Loftus and Palmer, 1974
• video clip of car crash, original info of car crash =  memory
• three misleading questions, smashed/hit/contacted caused them to retrieve info not accurate
• Loftus, Miller and Burns, 1978
• car stopped at stop sign; car stopped at yield sign
• change info about event, change occurs in memory of event
• Loftus, 2004
• "lost in mall procedure: paricipants given 3 real memories and 1 false memory of being lost in mall
• asked to elaborate on stories 24-48 hrs later, 25% recalled vivid details of being lost in mall
• Malleability of Memory: changing beliefs or memories can influence what people think or do later
• Misinformation effect has been applied by Loftus to many situations
• May be Function of Source Monitoring
• Difficulty of remembering what the source was for each piece of info- e.g. saw stop sign, questioned about yield sign
• Info not Tagged correctly
• Recovered Memories: memories, typically of sexual abuse, "recovered" often via therapist help
• most academics argue against this
• False memory syndrome: people can recall a past traumatic event that is objectively false but they believe is true
• Vivid memories acquired especially if Suggested by another person like therapist
• Typically lack other objective findings to support claims
• Retrieval, Stage 3
• Foils
• 4-8 
• Should Look like Actual suspect
• Goal: Reduce actual suspect's Distinctiveness
• Instructions
• Biased-  pressure to pick someone, even if unsure
• " Pick the assailant" or "Concentrate and make a choice"
• more likely to make a false ID
• Fair- "suspect may or may not be here"
• Format
• Sequential lineups or "showups" are better
• Compare each face individually to memory of perpetrator
• Absolute Judgment
• Simultaneous lineups
• like multiple choice - which one best
• Relative Judgment
• Avoid Familiarity Bias
• Familiarity-induced bias: forget where we saw a face we recall
• don't include actual suspects in initial lineup
• People do not always remember where they saw a face
• Detecting Deception
• Use skills at decoding non-verbal behavior...
• average person- slightly better than chance at detecting deception
• Training and Practice can Improve one's skills
• Zukerman (1981)
• 4 Channels for Evaluating Deception
• words, face, body, voice
• Words and face = controllable
• Body = more revealing
• fidgety movements, restless shifts in posture
• Voice = best clue
• pitch rises, and more hesitations

3/22: Memory

• Memory: persistence of learning over time through the storage and retrieval of information
• Personally Constructed
• events with more Personal Meaning = more easily remembered
• Function of Synaptic Changes
• Experience strengthens and makes more efficient neural connections= Long term potentiation
• more sensitized receptors, sending neuron needs less prompting to release nt
• Flashbulb memory: clear memory of emotionally significant moment or event
• may be function of emotion-triggered hormonal changes
• may be accurate directly after event
• not as accurate years later
• Stimulus----Sensory Memory--Attention---Short Term Memory---Encoding----Long-term Memory
• Sensory memory: immediate, inital record of sensory info
• Short-term memory: holds few items briefly
• Long-term memory: relatively permanent and limitless storehouse
• retrieval- process from long-term to short-term memory to access memory
• Encoding
• Automatic Processing: unconscious encoding of incidental info like space, time, frequency
• little-no effort
• Effortful Processing: encoding that requires attention and conscious effort
• Rehearsal helps
• Recency vs Primacy effects
• Recency-  just saw it,  in sensory memory
• Primacy- had time to rehearse, in short-term memory
• Durable and Accessible memories often produced
• info audible during sleep, not remembered; 1 hour before sleep - optimal memory
• Retain info better = Distributed over Time
• Many different pathways to encode info
• Visual Encoding: encoding to picture images
• more powerful with concrete imagery than abstract
• Acoustic encoding: encoding of sound
• Semantic encoding: encoding of meaning
• Craik and Tulving study: learning is easier when something has meaning
• ?Best: Imagery + Semantic
• Self-reference effect
• link meaning of something to yourself makes learning easier
• Mnemonic devices help remembering
• Chunking: organizing items into familiar, manageable units
• Hierarchies: subdividing concepts broad---narrow e.g. outline
• Storage
• Short-term: about 7 (giver or take 2) or 4
• Long-Term: limitless
• Memory does not reside in one single spot
• probably occurs in synapses and their neurotransmitters and hippocampus
• Arousal can enhance
• tragic, vividly remembered
• Weaker emotions, weaker memories
• flashbulb memories
• Retrieval
• Recall: ability to retrieve info not in conscious awareness
• Retrieval cues: help call stored info
• come from associations during encoding
• Priming
• elderly study
• Context effects: context of encoding = context retrieves info, remember better
• Deja vu: current situation, similar cues to earlier experience
• Mood-congruent memory: mood of storage = mood of recall, remember better
• Forgetting
• Absent-mindedness: inattention to details produces encoding failures
• Transience: storage decay over time
• Blocking: inaccessibility of stored info
• Misattribution: confusing info source
• Suggestibility: lingering effects of misinfo
• Bias: belief-colored recollections
• misconstruing past info
• Causes of Forgetting
• failure to encode info
• storage decay
• Retrieval failure: 
• lack of relevant cues
• tip of tounge phenomenon
• not enough cues to access all
• Proactive interference: learning earlier info can interfere learning later info
• Retroactive interference: new info takes place of old info
• hour before sleep is an exception
• Motivated Forgetting: remembering things differently than happened
• motivated cognition: memory portray self in positive light
• Repression: defense mechanism that banishes anxiety-arousing thoughts,feelings, memories
• Memory Improvement Tips
• Overlearn
• Actively rehearse and think about material
• make material personally meaningful
• use mnemonic devices
• recreate encoding situation and mood
• study before sleeping or no other interference
• test knowledge
• Amnesia
• results from many kind of brain damage, particualry hippocampus
• two main types
• Anterograde amnesia:new info cannot be stored in long-term memory
• Retrograde amnesia: can't recall events preceding accident
• also cause by damage to prefrontal cortex
• Korsakoff's sydnrom
• alcohol runs down vitamin 
• Confabulations
• making things up to fill the gap in memory\
• Can show signs of implicit memory but not explicit memory
• implicit: how to do something (unconscious)
• other brain areas including cerebellum
• unable to declare
• skills 
• explicit: memory of facts and experiences that one can know and declare (conscious)
• hippocampus

3/20: Observational learning -Media Violence

• —9 out of 10 teens watch TV daily
• —Americans who live to be 75 will have spent 9 years watching TV
• —The number of minorities on TV is disproportional
• —Minorities are depicted as illegal immigrants, drugees, gangbangers, maids, garbage men
• —U.S. TVs present 3 violent acts per hour during prime time, and 18 per hour during children’s Saturday morning programming
• US has highest murder rate among developed countries globally 
• More than 15,000 murders every year
• More than 92,000 reported rapes
• More than 7 million reported violent acts overall
• Every 5 minutes a child is arrested for a violent crime
• More than 50% of 5th graders report being a victim of violence (70% of those have seen weapons used)
• Guns kill an American child every 3 hours
• 87% of crimes are nonviolent; on TV 13% of crimes are nonviolent
• Average of 7  characters are killed on TV each night
• If applied in reality, this murder rate would wipe out U.S. population in 50 days
• Men gave more shocks after viewing violent erotica
• Violent erotica and other aggression can lead to desensitization
• conditioned stimulus = sexualized violence
• Media Violence
• #1 pastime
• 60-70% programs contain violence
• 70-80% show no remorse or penalty
• post elementary school
• thousands murders seen
• Since 1970s, know Link: Violent Media and Aggression
• Two Kind of Effects
• Short Term- increase in: hostile behavior, feelings, and attitudes
• Long Term- repeated exposure leads to: chronic hostility, desensitization to real violence
• Lab Studies:
• participants exposed violence more likely
• shock confederates
• recognize aggressive words
• criticisms
• exposure is brief and controlled
• experimenter bias: aggression may be sanctioned or encouraged
• no external validity
• External Validity is NOT a problem positive correlation
• Conditions likely to evoke violence
• Realistic violence
• e.g. video game graphics look very real and credible
• Reward/punishment of aggressor
• points system = direct reward, positive ending
• Arousal of observer
• violence to character elicits reaction
• ID of observer with aggressor
• immersion as if you were the aggressor
• Moral justification for violence
• violence needed in order to ___
• Longitudinal study
• Eron and Huesman (1960 -1985 various years)
• aggressiveness in 3rd graders, then again 10 years later
• result: Preference for TV violence significant correlation with  more10 year later aggressiveness
• BUT: aggressiveness in 3rd grade did not correlate with more preference for TV violence 10 years later
• follow up results: 
• more frequent TV at age 8, more serious crimes at age 30
• significant relationship violent TV and agressive behavior 1-22 years (various countries same)
• Liebert and Baron, 1972
• 15 min exposure to nonviolent and violent tv
• violent media associated with increased levels of aggression
• Video Games
• 90% 2-17 years play
• Specific effects due nature of game
• Columbine attacks: "Doom"
• Graphically violent games
• Increase Aggressive thoughts and behavior
• Related to Aggressive Behavior and Delinquency
• Violence is Directly Rewarded
• Increases Likelihood of Aggression
• Association between Media Violence and Aggression is Second Only to Smoking and Lung Cancer
• Primes Aggression; Catharsis Does NOT Work!
• Media Industry Responses
• Mirror to society
• False TV far more violent
• Giving Public what they want
• Maybe, sociteal violence hazardous by product; popular shows can be nonviolent
• Violence Sells
• False. Decreases memory for commercial messages

3/6: Learning

• Learning: relatively permanent chamge in an organism's behavior due to experience
• habituation = simplest form of learning
• Associative Learning: learning that certain events occur together
• Conditioning: process of learning associations
• Behaviorism: psychology should be an objective science, no reference to mental processes
• Classical Conditioning: learning associations and to anticipate events
• Pavlov = discoverer
• dogs' salivation experiment
• UCS = food
• UCR = drool
• CS = preceding bell
• CR = drool at bell's sound
• US (unconditioned stimulus) - stimulus that triggers UCR
• UR (unconditioned response) - an unlearned response
• CS (conditioned stimulus) - previously neutral stimulus (bell) that evokes conditioned response
• CR (conditioned response) - learned response to conditioned stimulus
• Principles of Classical Conditioning
• Acquisition: initial stage in associating neutral stimulus with an US
• Generalization: the CR can occur to stimuli that are similar to the CS
• Discrimination: the CR will NOT occur for ALL stimuli that are similar to the CS
• Extinction: pairing of CS and US stops, CR becomes weaker until it ceases
• Watson and Behaviorism
• founded behaviorism in reaction to introspection
• applied Pavlov's classical conditioning to "Little Albert" experiment
• white rat (CS) paired with loud noise (US) to induce fear (UR). later Albert feared the rat (CR)
• "Little Peter" experiment
• Systematic desensitization: repeated pairings of CS without US to extinguish classically conditioned responses
• treatment for phobia
• systematically associate an object without fearing it
• car phobia: every time give ice cream(CS) to person 
• Pavlov's Contributions
• most organisms can learn via classical conditioning
• process of learning can be studied objectively
• modern applications of conditioning
• phobia patients take small steps
• drug addicts stay away from places associated with prior highs
• Biology of Conditioning
• Natural selection favor traits that aid survival
• e.g, taste aversion to food with food poisoning
• Classical vs Operant Conditioning
• Classical Conditioning- forms associations between an already held response and new stimuli
• doesn't control outcomes
• Operant Conditioning: forms associtations between its behavior and its consequences
• 
  
• Organism controls outcomes
• Operant Conditioning: forms associtations between its behavior and its consequences
• B.F. Skinner
• believed that environmental consequences control all behavior = deterministic
• no room for personality or intenral components
• Skinner chamber
• strengthened - reinforcer        diminished - punisher
• based on Throndike's law of effect : rewarded behavior is likely to recur
• Positive Reinforcer : strengthens response through presentation of positive stimulus (reward)
• Negative Reinforcer: strengthens response through removal of an aversive stimulus
• Different reinforcer schedules
• Continuous vs. Intermittent reinforcement
• extinction of CR happened far more quickly in continuous type
• intermittent- random, never know when- hope
• e.g., gambler
• Punishment: negative event that follows undesired behavior that decreases likelihood of response
• 4 main drawbacks
• Behavior is suppressed but not forgotten
• Punishment teaches discrimination
•  can use cuss words around friends but not parents
• Punishment can teach fear
• Physical punishment can increase aggressiveness by modeling aggression
• Examples in real life
• clinical purposes: biofeedback
• hook up to machine to learn what feelings induce high blood presurre
• employees reinforced with cash, time off, vacations
• training animals
• Intrinsic vs Extrinsic motivations
• Intrinsic motivation: because seen as enjoyable
• Extrinsic motivation: because of reward/pressure
• Overjustification effect: overestimate extrinsic rewards and underestimate intrinsic motivation
• extrinsic rewards decrease intrinsic motivations = loss of interest in once enjoyed activity
• Observational Learning: learning by observing and modeling behavior of others
• possible reason -presence of mirror neurons in frontal lobe next to motor cortex
• Influential Factors
• if model is the same sex and behaves in a gender-role congruent way
• positive relationship between model and subject
• consequences of model are positive 
• model in position of power

3/1/12: Perception

• Perception is not always a replication of reality
• mind plays tricks on us
• Selective attention: process a limited amount of info and block out all other info
• Cocktail party effect: ability to attend to only one voice among many

Perceptual Organization

• Perceptual Organization: organize perception to transform sensory info into meaningful perceptions
• Visual Capture: tendency for vision to retain dominant influence over other senses
• Perceptual Illusions
• visual system predicts what we think will happen
• Context Effect
• Gestalt: tendency to integrate pieces of information into meaningful wholes
• perceive parts as one whole of a different type, ex: flag made out of bunch of mini pictures
• Figure and Ground: organization of the visual field into objects (figures) and backgrounds (ground)
• ex: two faces that make up a vase
• Proximity: grouping nearby figures together 
• Similarity: group figures that are similar
• Continuity: perceive continuous patterns
• Connectedness:  spots, lines, and areas are seen as one unit when connected
• Closure: fill in gaps to make sense of it

Depth Perception

• Depth Perception: function of ability to see things in three dimensions which enable us to estimate distance from us
• acquired knowledge
• Binocular cues: dependent on both eyes
• Monocular Cues: depth cues that are available to each eye alone
• Relative Height: objects higher in vision seen as further away
• Relative Size: if two objects are same size, the one that's smaller is perceived to be farther away
• Interposition: if an object blocks our view of another, it's perceived to be closer
• Linear Perspective: parallel lines that appear to converge convey distance; more they converge, greater distance
• Light and Shadow: light= closer dimmer = farther away; shading = info about light source

Perceptual Consistency: ability to recognize objects to be the same despite differences

• Shape consistency: understanding the object may have different shape based on angle of view
• Size consistency: objects have consistent size even when distance changes
• reciprocal relationship between size and distance
• e.g. car at a distance
• Brightness Contrast
• different context can trick us
• e.g: board example
• Color Consistency
• depends on more than wavelength info received by cones
• • also on context
• perceive color as function of light reflected relative to surrounding objects
• Comparisons govern perceptions

Perceptual Interpretation

• Perceptual Set: mental predisposition perceive one thing and not another
• experiences, assumptions, expectations = influences on perception
• Schemas
• Summary
• Perception influenced by:
• Biological 
• sensrory analyis
• unlearned visual phenomena
• Psychological
• selective attention
• kearned schemas
• Gestalt principles
• context effects
• perceptual set
• Social-cultural
• expectations and assumptions
• Extrasensroy Perception
• Parapsychology: study of paranormal psychology
• Extrasensory Perception: perception can occur apart from sensory input
• Telepathy: read/transmit thoughts into people's minds
• Clairvoyance: perceiving remote events
• Precognition: see the future

2/28: Sensation

• Sensation: process by which our nervous system receives and represents stimuli from the environment
• sensory receptors absorb raw physical energy
• raw energy transformed into neural signals which are sent to the brain
• Perception: organizing and interpreting sensory information, enabling us to recognize meaningful objects and events
• meaning assigned to sensory information
• Attention---Memory----Thinking Action = Sensation ; Thinking Action---Memory--Attention= Perception
• simultaneous processes
• Bottom-up, Attention to Thinking Action, = Sensation
• Top-down, Thinking Action to Attention = Perception

Sensation - Thresholds

• Sensation
• subjective and cannot be measured using objective instruments
• evaluated using psychoanalysis
• Absolute Threshold: minimum stimulation needed to detect a particular stimulus 50% of the time
• vary with age
• Signal Detection Theory: understand why people respond differently to same stimuli and why the same people reactions change in different circumstances
• detecting a stimulus is determined by the signal and the subject's criterion (bias)
• Just Noticeable Difference (JND)
• definition: minimum difference a person can detect between any two stimuli  half the time
• Weber's Law: JND is a function of proportions
• Subliminal messages:
• definition: words and pictures not consciously perceived that are supposedly influence behavior and judgment and attitudes
• FCC banned use of subliminal messages
• no control group in movie theater study
• No evidence of subliminal messages used in everyday life have any influence on behavior
• Greenwald (1991): study on subliminal messages
• Results: neither of tapes had any effect on people's memory or self-esteem
• sensation
• Person thinks self-esteem tape but really listen to memory tape, increase in memory
• perception
• Sensation: Vision
• seeing light = pulses of electromagnetic waves hitting eyes
• Frequency of color
• wavelength = type of color
• short = high frequency bluish colors
• long = low frequency reddish colors
• amplitude = intensity
• great = bright colors
• small = dull colors
• Sensation: The Eye
• Cornea
• light enters through here
• protects eye
• bends light to provide focues
• Pupil
• small adjustable opening
• size regulated by the Iris- a colored muscle surrounding the pupil
• Lens
• fine-tunes focusing of light
• Retina
• light sensitive surface on which rays focus
• images projected upside down 
• Acuity - sharpness of vision
• Nearsightedness: images of far objects is focused before the retina
• Farsightedness: image of near objects is focused behind retina
• Retina contains millions of photoreceptor cells that convert light energy into neural activity
• Rods: sensivitee to light
• Cones: sensitive to color
• Rods vs Cones
• Rods
• concentrated at the outer edge of the retina
• share bipolar cells with other rods = combined messages
• not good at precise information
• perceived black and white
• sensitive in dim light
• Cones
• clustered in the fovea
• direct connection to cortex via bipolar cell
• better at precise info
• perceive color
• ineffectual in dim light
• types
• red 
• green
• blue
• combo of types = multiple colors
• colorblindness
• one of cones not working
• Parallel Processing
• brain cell teams process combined info about
•  color, motion, form, depth
• Recognition-----Retinal Processing------Feature Detection

Hearing

• Sound
• waves as vibrations
• pattern of rapid wavelike movements of air molecules
• movement jolts surrounding air molecules and these collide with others
• 750 mph
• much slower than light
• travels in waves
• wavelength = pitch/type of sound
• short = high frequency/ high pitched sounds
• long = low frequency/ low pitched sounds
• frequency = intensity
• great = loud
• small = soft
• Process
• Collected in Outer Ear
• Auditory canal ----Eardrum
• Eardrum Vibrates Bones in Middle Ear
• Vibrations cause Hair Cell movements send neural message---- Auditory Cortex
• Locating Sound
• detection small differences between right and left ear
• measures just noticeable difference
• Hearing Loss
• Conduction Hearing Loss: caused by damage to the mechanical system of the ear
• Sensorinerual hearing loss (nerve deafness) : cause by damage to hair cell receptors or auditory nerves
• most often caused by aging or prolonged exposure to noise
• digital hearing aids can help by amplifing vibrations
• Sensory Compensation: slight enhancement of other sensory abilities after losing one channel
• Synesthesia: joing the senses: sensory crossovers
• error in terms of brain's responsivity
• e.g. hears words, visual cortex activates
• naturally and artifically done

Touch

• Somatosensory perception is essential for maintaining the integrity of the body, for controlling movements, etc
• Phantom sensations demonstrate the hidden but continuous operation of the somatosensory system 
• Phantom Limb Pain
• subjective sensory awareness of an amputated part
• pins-and-needles, burning, shooting pain, cramps
• somatosensory cortex still active in that area
• over 70 % experience intense pain; 80% suffer this
• treatment - 7% success, virtual expensive
• mirror to remaining limb and the perceived movement tricks brain
• cause?
• possibility: Cortical Reorganization of the Somatosensory Cortex

Taste

• Sweet, Salty, Bitter, Sour
• Taste for MSG has also been id'd
• Survival Functions
• sweet = energy source
• salty = sodium essential to physiological processes
• sour = potentially toxic acid
• bitter = potential poisons
• Obesity and evolved processes
• Fittest of ancient = preferred high calorie food, ate to capacity, efficient body-fat storage metabolsim, hunting and killing = high energy
• Current society
• food no longer requires tremendous energy expenditure
• cultural factors contribute to high calorie food central status

Smell

• Process
• Airborne molecules----- receptors at top of your nose
• sniffing swirls air to receptors
• The receptor cells------ brain’s olfactory bulb----- temporal lobe’s primary smell cortex and  parts of the limbic system involved in memory and emotion
• Smell processed near memory area
• smell trigger memory
• Women have superior sense of smell
• theory: help select better mate
• Miniski and Wedekind (2001)
• ovulation (enhanced smell)
• Why'
• segment of DNA, MHC ( major histocompatibility complexe) codes for immune system functioning
• MHC is co-dominant
• tend to select different MHC person
• MHC manifests itself in proteins secreted
• Female rats select with dissimlar MHC mates
• women and cotton t shirt experiment
• MHC dissimilar = mate
• MHC similar = akin to family member
• overly intense disliked
• suggests because strong odors though to indicate disease

Review Session: Exam One

• Know on Book
• fair game
• scientific terms
• even the prologue
• Questions
• Majority: Apply knowledge about terms
• Brain Location
• Drugs
• know differences/types of drugs
• mechanisms/ what's done to body
• do they attach or stop neurons etc.
• pathways and general areas affected , nucleus accumbens 
• not specific points
• Specific Studies
• Dates
• Dedication to study
• Biological Portion - most talked about
• Sleep, Consciousness
• Hemispheres
• Left- Speech Generation
• Right- Speech Comprehension
• Depressant, Alcohol
• Impairs Frontal Lobe
• away with inhibitions
• Impairs Cerebellum
• affected balance
• Sleep
• stages
• time spent
• comparative
• individual
• Night Terrors/ Sleep Paralysis Difference
• conscious- sleep paralysis
• night terrors
• more akin to nightmare 
• Know Different Sleep Theories
• Protection from dark
• Allow us to grow
• pituitary gland
• Restoration
• body tissue
• consolidate memories
• brain reorganizes
• Know Dream Theories
• Freud's Psychoanalytic Perspective
• Activation-synthesis
• Neurocognitive theory
• File Memories away
• Develop/Preserve Neural pathways
• Know Attachment styles
• Avoidant
• Anxious-ambivalent
• Secure
• Strange Situation test
• what about it makes it work with attachment styles
• determines attachment style by reaction to reunion with mom
• Parenting styles (book)
• Experiment/Research methods
• Correlation
• Causation
• Experimental
• Cross sectional vs longitudinal
• Assimilation vs Accommodation - Piaget
• two processes children understand world
• accommodation- making schema to learn new info
• assimilation- add new experiences/knowledge into schema to edit
• dog = four legs, but moose = dog example
• Nervous System
• = chain of neurons
• send communication through chains
• neurons vary in size

Study Guide Exam 1 (2/20)

Psychology- the scientific study of behavior and the mind
behavior: observable actions
mind: subjective experiences

Chapter One: Methods

• Hypothesis- testable relationship between two constructs
• cannot be proved true; only can prove falsity
• support with data and more complexity makes it become a theory
• Theory- organized set of principles used to explain observed phenomena
• testing: predictions--research tests--either confirmed or not--more or less confidence
• Random Sample-each person in the population has an equal chance of inclusion
• phone book and college student selection would NOT be random sampling because the choices in the groups are too alike: college = 3% of majority, phone book= zip code
• Three Research Methods
• Observational
• Correlational
• Experimental
• Observational
• Focus: Description
• observes people and systematically records measurements of their behavior
• ex: archival analysis
• Pros
• nice place to start
• Cons
• Hard to 
• Implement
• Quantify
• Bias
• Correlational
• Focus: Prediction
• observe the relationship between two or more variables
• Pros
• able to study issues that would be otherwise unethical or impossible
• Efficient:allows more collection of info and test more relationships
• Cons
• CANNOT conclude a casual relationship
• Correlation Coefficient-statistic that assesses the relationship between two variables:
• how strongly and what direction associated
• positive/negative
• Experimental
• Focus: Causality
• Requires:
• Manipulation of one or more variables
• Vary variables of interest across groups and keep everything else constant 
• Independent Variable(IV): factor manipulated by researcher and the cause of change in 
• Dependent Variable(DV): outcome being studied/evaluated, the response to IV
• Random Assignment
• each participant in the sample has an equal likelihood of being placed in any condition
• NOT the same as Random Sampling
• CRUCIAL: necessary to establish causality 
• If people are assigned randomly to different groups , any difference has to be cause by IV
• Correlational vs Experimental Recap
• IV
• C = varies naturally
• E = manipulated by researcher
• Random Assignment
• C= NO
• E= YES
• Test Causality
• C= NO
• E= YES
• Validity in Research
• Two types associated with research
• Internal Validity- the effects in the DV are caused by the IV
• External Validity- degree to which research findings can be generalized to "real world" effects
• Experimental Settings
• Field Experiment- examines behavior in its natural habitat
• pro: high in
• Laboratory Experiment- done in artificial setting
• Solution:
• do both
• Bias in Research
• Experimenter Bias
• Subject Bias
• Experimenter Bias
• Subtle cues from researchers may influence participants' behavior
• e.g. Clever Hans and his 'counting' horse
• Solutions
• "Blind" Research Assistants
• Standardize research procedures
• Subject Bias
• Mere fact of knowing you're studied can alter your behavior
• Solutions
• Unobtrusive measures
• Do Not Tell participants goals or hypotheses
• Ethical Issues
• Mandated: 
• Informed Consent
• Debriefing
• Weighing of benefits and costs of research

Chapter Two: Biological Psychology

• Biological Psychology-study of the brain, nervous system, genetics and how they relate to behavior and mental processes
• how this unobservable physiological process influences behavior
• Outline of Primary Parts
• The Nervous System
• Neurons
• The Brain
• Drugs and their Effects

• The Nervous System
• definition: electrochemical communication network that connects the brain and spinal cord to all organs, muscles, and glands
• Central Nervous System (CNS): brain and spinal cord
• Peripheral Nervous System(PNS): nerves that radiate from the spinal cord (CNS) to the rest of the body
• Somatic Nervous System: transmits signals from sensory organs to CNS and from CNS to skeletal muscles
• Automatic Nervous System: connects CNS to smooth involuntary muscles and organs and to glands
• Sympathetic division: prepares body to react and expend energy in time of stress
• fight/flight
• Parasympathetic division: conserves resources; maintain bodily functions
• rest and digestion
• CNS
• Spinal cord relays messages btwn brain and extremities
• receives signals from our senses, relays them to brain, and sends info back from brain to control behavior
• Signals: Senses---Brain---Control behavior
• reflexes
• behaviors controlled by solely by the spinal cord
• PNS
• bundles of axons that communicate between spinal cord and rest of body
• divided into subsystems:
• Somatic Nervous System
• Automatic Nervous System
• Sympathetic Division
• Parasympathetic Division
• Somatic Nervous System
• Voluntary
• Communicates between brain and skeletal muscles
• Info: Senses----SNS-----CNS-----Muscles
• Automatic Nervous System
• Involuntary
• between the brain and the heart,lungs, organs,+ glands
• Neuron
• types
• Sensory: tissue and sensory organs to brain and spinal cord(CNS)
• Motor:  outgoing info from CNS to muscles and glands
• Interneurons: internal communicate between sensory inputs and motor outputs
• Reflex: Sensory----Interneuron----Motor in reaction to pain stimuli
• Action Potential
• fired by
• receives signals from sense receptors
• stimulated by chemical messages
• Resting Potential is Negative Inside Neuron
• Action Potential
• Opens Na+ gates = Na+ Passes Inside Neuron
• Subsequently Opens K+ Gates = K+ Passes Inside Neuron
• Process Continues Down Neuron
• Proton Pump Restores Initial Resting Action Potential Inside Neuron
• Types of Neurotransmitters
• Acetylcholine(ACH):
• one of the most common NT
• every junction between motor neuron and skeletal muscle
• Released, muscle contracts
• Blocked, muscle can't contract(botulin)
• Undersupply = Alzheimer's 
• Endorphins:
• natural opiates released in response to pain and vigorous exercise
• Dopamine:  
• excite or inhibit depends on receptors on other neurons
• influences
• movement
• learning
• attention
• emotion
• too much- schizophrenia
• too little - Parkinson's
• Seratonin: 
• mood regulation
• also controls
• sleep
• eating
• arousal
• pain
• targeted by many anti-depressants (SSRIs)
• Hindbrain:  structures responsible for basic functions for sustainability 
• Brain Stem(Medulla and Pons): nerve cells in the medulla connect with the body to perform basic functions without conscious control
• Cerebellum(little brain): lobe-like structure at brain's base that specializes in coordination and timing of details of movement
• Midbrain: structures that control basic sensory responses and those in control of voluntary movement
• location: above hindbrain
• primary function: relay station between sensory and motor areas
• e.g: tectum: coordinates sensation of movement with actions
• includes neurons that
• contain dense dopamine concentrations
• activity that sends messages to higher brain centers that control movement
• Forebrain
• most visibly obvious
• critical to complex processes
• memory
• emotion
• thinking and reasoning
• substructures
• Basal Ganglia
• planned voluntary movements and reward processing
• substructure: Nucleus Accumbens 
• experiences all sorts of pleasure and reward
• Limbic System and Amgydala 
• Limbic System
• integrated network involved in emotion and memory
• location: border (limbus) between brain's older parts and cerebral hemispheres 
• several substructures:
• Amgydala
• Hippocampus
• Hypothalamus
• Thalamus 
• Amgydala:
• facilitates:
• memory formation for emotional events
• mediates fear responses
• plays role in recognizing/interpreting facial expressions
• freezing response due to connection with adaptive to fear nervous system structures
• Hippocampus:
• critical for learning and formation of new memories
• Hypothalamus:
• thermostat maintaining apt body temp. and regulating drives with the endocrine system
• e.g. orgasm
• Thalamus:
• involved in relaying sensory info to different areas of brain
• most incoming sensory info is routed here and then to more specialized areas of cortex

Book Info

• Thalamus
• directs messages to sensory receiving areas of cortex
• replies to cerebellum and medulla
• Medulla
• controls heartbeat and breathing, base of brain stem
• Brainstem
• extension of spinal cord, responsible for automatic survival functions
• parts
• Medulla
• Pons
• Reticular formation
• Thalamus
• Limbic System
• parts
• Amygdala
• Pituitary gland
• Hypothalamus
• Hippocampus
• Amygdala
• linked to emotion
• primarily influence aggression and fear
• linked to sleep paralysis
• Hypothalamus
• bodily maintenance
• eating for example
• linked to emotion and reward
• help govern endocrine system
• influences Pituitary gland
• Reticular formation
• helps control arousal
• Hippocampus
• linked to memory 
• Gilal cells (gila)
• support, nourish and protect neurons
• Frontal Lobe
• involved in
• speaking
• muscle movement
• making plans
• judgment(depressant impairs this)
• Parietal Lobe
• receives sensory input for touch and body position
• Occipital Lobe
• Visual lobe
• Motor Cortex
• voluntary movements
• Temporal Lobes
• hearing
• object recognition
• Werenke's Area
• Association areas
• higher mental functions
• Neuron
• Axon
• extension of neuron through which messages are sent to other neurons
• process = action potential
• Dendrites
• receive messages from other cells
• Mybelin sheath
• covering for axon
• increases speed
• Synapse
• junction for communication between two neurons undergoing action potential
• Action Potential
• cause by stimulation and depolarization
• Sodium in
• Potassium out
• resting potential = negative
• restored via proton pump
• Plasticity
• ability of brain to change by reorganization
• prime = young childhood
• Corpus Callosum
• large band of neural fibers that
• connect two brain hemispheres
• carries messages between them
• Left Hemisphere
• Speech Generator
• Math
• Speaking/calculating tasks
• Explains Behavior
• Analytic
• Right Hemisphere
• Speech Comprehension
• Visual-Spatial skills
• Perceptual tasks
• Sense of Self
• Creative
• Endocrine system
• secondary communication system to nervous system, uses hormones

Chapter Three: States of Consciousness

• Consciousness:  awareness of ourselves and our environments
• Book information
• Dual Processing
• info is simultaneously processed on separate conscious and unconscious tracks
• Selective Attention: focusing of conscious awareness on a particular stimulus
• cocktail effect- one voice heard among many
• inattentional blindness- visual object unseen due to attention being elsewhere
• change blindness- failure to notice change in environment
• REM rebound
• tendency for REM sleep to increase following REM sleep deprivation ( created by repeated awakenings during REM sleep)
• Dissociation
• split in consciousness, which allows some thoughts and behaviors to occur simultaneously with others
• Psychoactive drug
• alters perceptions and moods
• Tolerance
• diminishing effect of drug, leads to larger doses
• Withdrawal
• discomfort and distress following discontinued use of addictive drug
• Physical dependence
• physiological need marked by unpleasant withdrawal symptoms
• Psychological dependence
• relieve negative emotions, psychological need
• Addiction
• compulsive craving and use spite of consequences
• Methaphetamine
• all effects of amphetamines in addition to reducing baseline dopamine levels
• Sleep = Unconsciousness Because..
• Brain continues to process information both external and internally generated
• Brain remains active
• Easily awakened
• Theories for Necessity of Sleep
• Protection from dark
• evolutionary perspective: also from predators
• Restores Body Tissue and Allows Brain to Reorganize itself and Consolidate Memories
• Allows us to Grow
• Pituitary Gland releases hormone
• Sleep Research
• Genetic variability in need
• sleep at least 9 hrs without disturbances
• keeps track of sleep debt for at least two weeks
• 7-8 hrs sleep tend to outlive those who sleep less
• Sleep-Wake Cycle
• major period night
• smaller period afternoon
• Naps: focus attention and help make complicated decisions
• Circadian Rhythm : biological clock regulates body rhythms every 24 hours
• largely affected by sleep-inducing hormone, Melatonin
• produced in pineal gland 
• only produced in darkness
• bright light inhibits melatonin and resents clock
• thought to contribute to depression
• Morningness-Eveningness 
• Horne and Ostberg, 1976
• stable preferences for different times of day
• thought to be function of variance in circadian rhythms  in body temps and endocrine secretion
• Morning people-  peak body temp and alertness earlier in day
• Evening people- peak body temp and alertness later in day
• Sleep Stages
• sleep cycle: 90 minutes
• 5 stages and regress through them
• before falling asleep, when mind is relaxed and awake = alpha waves
• Stage 1
• 5 minutes
• Fantastic images, hallucination
• Sensation of falling, floating, jerking
• Stage 2
• 20 minutes
• can wake up without difficulty but clearly asleep
• Sleep-talking: can begin here but also occur in other stages
• spindles: bursts of rapid brain activity; happen here
• Stage 3
• 30 minutes
• Transitional
• Delta Waves begin to be slowly emitted
• Stage 4
• 30 minutes
• Slow-wave sleep
• Delta Waves
• Hard to awaken
• End of stage: sleepwalking/bedwetting
• Stage 5
• Regress through Stage 3----Stage 2: REM
• REM periods get longer as night progresses
• 10 minutes
• Brain waves nearly resemble that of Stage 1 EXCEPT
• heart rate rises, breathing increases, eye movement
• Beginning of a Dream
• about 20-25 % of sleep
• Brain's cortex active
• Brainstem blocks messages = relaxed
• Sleep Disorders
• stress during day = average of 1 hr less sleep each night
• Insomnia: persistent problems in falling/staying asleep
• 10-15% of adults retain it
• stimulants cause overload for half of it
• Narcolepsy: people spontaneously collapse into REM sleep
• 1 in 2000
• absence of neural center that produces neurotransmitter hypocretin
• New research: might be auto-immune disease
• Sleep Apnea: intermittently stop breathing during sleep
• 1 in 20 (mostly overweight men)
• causes CNS to stop functioning 
• Parasomnias:
• sleep-walking, sleep-talking, tooth grinding
• Night terrors: sitting up, walking around, talking, heightened heart rate
• More common in kids, not unusual in adults
• Generally happen in DEEP sleep = stages 3 and 4, NOT REM
• Sleep Deprivation
• peak age of occurrence: 20
• exhibit slower reaction times and increased errors
• Cumulative
• body needs to make up for lost time the next night
• Level Alteration 
• Lowers Leptin
• signal of starvation
• Raises Ghrelin 
• increased appetite 
• body mass index proportional to sleep loss
• Dreams
• tend to be about what we did during the day
• The 5 Theories for why
• Psychoanalytic perspective
• Activation-synthesis theory
• Neurocognitive theory
• File away Memories
• Develop/Preserve Neural Pathways

• Psychoanalytic Perspective(Freud)
• Freud: dream as wish fulfillment
• Dream =  royal road to understanding unconsciousness
• Manifest Content: what a person remembers and consciously considers
• Latent Content: underlying hidden meaning (symbols)
• Dreams are disguised fulfillment of repressed infantile wish
• Freud used free association and dream analysis to access unconscious conflicts
• most adult dreams can be traced back to erotic wishes
• Weakness: difficult to test scientifically
• Activation-Synthesis: brain experiences spontaneous activity as sensations
• Pons Input: activate image producing area of brain
• Amygdala has increased activity
• lack of activity in frontal lobe
• links sensations together in synthesized pattern
• some aspects of brain related to dream activity
• damage to limbic system = dream impairment
• meaning = by product, assigned by personality
• Weakness: difficult to test scientifically
• Neurocognitive Theory: dreams = "special" kind of thinking
• persistent cortex activity
• reduced sensory stimulation
• loss of voluntary control of thinking
• ability to recall dreams require cognitive maturity
• elements of what's on mind
• adult ones usually boring
• File Memories: Information processing in which sort the day's experiences and encode them in memory
• REM sleep
• storage of memory
• erasure of memory
• resolution of emotional experiences
• transfer of memory from hippocampus to long term storage
• Develop/Preserve Neural Pathways: Physiological function to 
• stimulate brain and develop/preserve neurons
• dream to exercise synapses
• infants with developing neural systems have abundant sleep
• REM sleep has changes in breathing, blood flow to brain, brain activity
• Sleep Paralysis
• experience
• wake up paralyzed, detects presence, feels fear, perceives buzzing and strange lights
• dreaming while awake
• Hypnosis
• suggestion that certain perceptions, feelings, thoughts, or behaviors will occur
• depends on suggestibility
• those with rich imagination are susceptible
• trance state
• extreme suggestibility, relaxation, heightened imagination
• daydreaming comparison
• age regression cannot occur
• posthypnotic suggestion:
• carried out after hypnosis
• worked to alleviate headaches, stress, asthma
• can't work with drugs/addictions
•  Other Priming Methods
• Memory task
• prime = words asked to memorize
• Scrambled sentence task
• prime = words' relating to prime
• Word search
• encoded in word search = prime
• Physical presence of Stimuli
• Subliminal Priming
• to quick to be aware of
• steps
• brief presentation
• mask with other stimulus
• happy followed by XXX

Chapter 5: Developmental Psychology

Book Info

• Maturation
• biological growth processes that enable orderly changes in behavior, relatively unaffected by experience
• Zygote (2 weeks)--Embryo(end of 2 weeks to 9)----Fetus(9 weeks to birth
• Teratogens
• chemicals and viruses that can harm embryo or fetus
• Habituation
• less responsiveness with repeated situations
• Autism
• disorder in children marked by deficient communication, interaction, and understanding others
• Stranger Anxiety
• begins at 8 months
• Imprinting
• process of form attachments during critical period
• Critical Period
• optimal period shortly after birth when certain exposure to stimuli and environment produces proper development
• Basic Trust(Erik Erikson)
• apt experiences with care givers develop sense of predictable and trustworthy world during infancy
• Menarhce - first menstrual period
• REST WILL BE LOOKED AND HIGHLIGHTED IN BOOK
• Developmental Psychology
  §The study of how people grow, mature, and change over the life span
  
  
  • Key themes
  • Nature vs. nurture: how do genetic factors versus situation factors influence our development
  • Continuity vs. stages: does development occur gradually or  w/in clear stages
  •  Stability vs. change: how consistent are we as people from one stage in life to another?
  • Research strategies:
  • Cross-sectional: people of different ages are examined at the same time and their responses are compared
  • Longitudinal: same subjects are retested at different times in their lives
  • Infants Research
  • Habituation:
  • An infant will indicate interest with its gaze
  • An infant will become “habituated” to a visual stimulus = way to asses perception/memory
  • Turns towards human voices
  • An infant will suck on a pacifier more vigorously when it hears its mother’s voice
  • Prefers objects 8-12 inches away
  • Typical distance of mother to infant when nursing
  • Recognizes mother’s smell
  • A baby will turn towards the smell of its mother
  • Prefers objects that look like human faces
  • Preference for “beautiful” faces = symmetrical
  • Prefers higher-pitched voices and “baby talk”
  • parents in many cultures use exaggerated speech and high-pitched voices dubbed "parentese." 
  • The Infant: Neural Development
  • Babies have most of the brain cells they will ever have
  • But their nervous system is still developing  = they have less neural connections
  • Growth spurt from 3-6 in frontal lobes that enables rational planning
  • Association areas last to develop
  • Neural pathways for language/agility surge until puberty when pruning process occurs
  • Children’s memories are processed differently after 4
  • Cognitive Development: Jean Piaget (1896-1980)
  • How do children incorporate new information with what they already know?
  • They form schemas – mental representations of the world 
  • They assimilate new info into schemas and adjust schemas (accommodate) to fit new info
  • Theory: children are curious, active, intelligent and constructive thinkers with a DIFFERENT TYPE of logic
  • Cognitive development stages Piaget
  • Sensorimotor stage (birth-2 yrs)
  • Experience the world through sensory and motor interactions 
  • E.g. looking, hearing, touching, mouthing, grasping
  • 2 Key aspects: 
  • 1) Lack of object permanence: awareness that objects continue to exist when not perceived
  • Acquire object permanence ~ 8 months
  • 2) Separation anxiety: acquisition of object permanence = misses mother
  • Preoperational stage (2-6 years)
  • Children too young to perform mental operations
  • Words and images are used to symbolize objects
  • 2 key aspects:
  • 1) Conservation: No understanding of conservation – physical properties of an object stay the same 
  • 2) Egocentrism: unable to adopt another perspective, self-centered
  • Concrete operational stage (7-12)
  • Definied by acquisition of:
  • Logical reasoning: grasp the idea of conservation
  • Perspective taking: no longer egocentric
  • Grouping
  • Subgroups/ serialization
  • Can add and subtract without counting
  • Formal operational stage (12 yr +)
  • Reasoning expands from concrete to
  • Reasoning on a logical, hypothetical level
  • Abstract thinking
  • Systematic reasoning, but may occur earlier than Piaget had thought 
  • Self-concept develops
  • Piaget’s legacy
  • 1st to realize that children actively construct meaning
  • Children aren’t developmentally ready for certain tasks until they are at the stage
  • Cognitive milestones
  • BUT: Development is more continuous than Piaget thought
  • Evidence of each “stage” occurs earlier than Piaget though
  • Children have high suggestibility
  • Social Development: Attachment styles:
  • Harlow: 
  • studied attachment in primates
  • Separated infant rhesus monkeys form mothers after birth and provided them with two dummy ‘mother’ options
  • Wire mother with feeding bottle
  • Cloth mother
  • *NB: monkeys preferred cloth mothers
  • • What happens when babies are deprived of social contact?
    • When monkeys reared in total isolation were placed with other monkeys their age, they either cowered in fright or lashed out aggressively
    • When they reached sexual maturity, many were incapable of mating
    • If artificially impregnated, they were neglectful and sometimes murdered their offspring
  • Strange situation test
  • Ainsworth:  
  • Strange situation test to determine strength/nature of attachment bonds b/w mothers and infants (12-18 months)
  • Results
  • Final stage of test:
  • the stranger leaves and the mother returns to comfort her infant. 
  • DV: the infant's reaction to reunion with mother 
  • the degree to which the infant seeks/avoids proximity to mother
  • the degree to which infant tries to maintain/resist contact with his mother 
  • Three Attachment groups (based on results)
  • Secure: upset at departure but comforted upon return
  • Avoidant: no distress at departure, nor response upon return
  • Anxious-Ambivalent: upset at departure, difficulty in being comforted upon return
  • What causes attachment style?
  • Several key aspects:
  • 1) Responsiveness of parental behaviour
  • • 2) Consistency and sensitivity of care
  • Expectations developed with primary caregiver thought to serve as a template for future relationships
  • *NB: ‘insecure’ attachment only evident in times of stress or conflict!
  • (Avoidant) : I am somewhat uncomfortable being close to another; I find it difficult to trust them completely, difficult to allow myself to depend on them. I am nervous when he/she gets too close, and often, the he/she wants me to be more intimate than I feel comfortable being
  • (Anxious-ambivalent) : I find that the other person is reluctant to get as close as I would like. I often worry that he/she doesn’t really love me or won’t want to stay with me. I want to get very close him/her, and this sometimes scares him/her away.
  • (Secure) : I find it relatively easy to get close to another and am comfortable depending on him/her. I don’t often worry about being abandoned or about him/her getting too close to me.
  • Attachment Style in Adults
  • Hazan & Shaver, 1987
  • Attachment style originates from relationship with primary caregiver = working models
  • Model of self: expectation of whether the self is worthy of support and affection
  • Model of other: expectation of the likelihood that other people are reliable and will treat the self well
  • Translates to how individuals act in romantic relationships
  • “Style” evident in times of stress
  • Attachment styles
  • Secure: 
  • Responsive caregiver
  • trusting, view that one is worthy and well-liked
  • Satisfying romantic relationships
  • Anxious-Ambivalent: 
  • Erratic caregiver
  • Fall in love easily, worries, fear of being abandoned, idealizes and devaluates partner, 
  • Relationship =  emotional highs and lows, jealousy and conflict
  • Avoidant
  • Negligent caregiver
  • Independent, difficulty with intimacy, preference for social distance
  • low levels of intimacy, commitment and satisfaction, and high levels of negative emotional experiences 
  • Coping strategies
  • Secure: talk to partner
  • Anxious: rumination
  • Avoidant: distancing
  • Distribution in population
  • 56% Secure, 25% Avoidant, 19% Anxious
  • Gender differences
  • Men more likely to be avoidant, women more likely to be anxious
  • Avoidant & Anxious-Ambivalent pairings
  • Secure buffer
  • Continuous vs. categorical
  • 4 category model
  • Static vs. flexible
  • Problems with attachment styles
  • Several continued criticisms of attachment style research:
  • 1) Attachment styles are just another personality variable
  • 2) Attachment styles have no tested, organized universal format or standard
  • Continuous? Categorical? 3? 4? Hierarchical? WHO KNOWS
  • Everyone is just focused on a little piece of the puzzle
  • Stages of Social Development
  • Erik Erikson
  • Development of "Ego Identity"
  • changes constantly with regards to environment
  • experience of self based on interactions
  • Competence and personal adequacy
  • each stage = different aspect of mastery
  • stage managed well = feelings of competence
  • stage managed poorly = feelings of inadequacy
  • Erikson's 8 Stages of Life
  • Stage 1: Infancy
  • Trust vs Mistrust: How can I be secure?
  • upbringing and learning
  • Stage 2: Early Childhood
  • Autonomy vs. Shame/Doubt: ....be independent?
  • controlling parents---fail----shame/doubt
  • Stage 3: Childhood (play age)
  • Initiative vs Guilt:  .....be powerful?
  • excessive punishment = guilt
  • no punishment = excessive initiative/power
  • Stage 4: Childhood(school age)
  • Industry vs Inferiority: .... be good?
  • master task = feelings of capability, industry
  • fail task = feelings of inferiority
  • Stage 5: Adolescence/ Young Adulthood
  • Identity vs Role confusion: ... who am I? how do I fit in the adult world?
  • resolution = live up to who you are
  • failure = matching personality of others to blend
  • Stage 6: Young Adulthood
  • Intimacy vs Isolation: how can I love?
  • share self with people = success
  • fail = isolate
  • Stage 7: Mature Adulthood
  • Generativity vs Stagnation: ..be creative?
  • break from mold = success
  • "conform" = fail
  • Stage 8: Old Age
  • Ego Integrity vs Despair: have I accomplished what I would've liked
  • retrospection
  • Adolescence
  • sexual maturity----------socially achieving adult status
  • surging hormones
  • frontal lobe lags behind the rest of the developing system
  • lose unused neural connections
  • Frontal Lobe Maturation
  • Moral Development in Adolescents
  • Kohlberg
  • key step in personal growth = distinguishing right from wrong
  • moral thinking steps occurs in stages
  • 3 main stages
  • provides moral dilemmas to children
  • Answers = Unimportant
  • Reasoning = Important
  • Kohlberg's Moral Reasoning Stages
  • 1). Preconventional (before 9): obey to avoid punishment or gain reward
  • Stage 1: Obedience and Punishment Orientation
  • what is right up to authorities
  • Stage 2: Indivudalism and Exchange
  • recognizing there are many different perspectives; useful to make deals and exchange favors with others
  • 2). Conventional Morality : peoplt think as members of the conventional society with its values, norms, and expectations
  • Stage 3: Good Interpersonal Relationships
  • emphasize helpful motives toward close people
  • Stage 4: Maintaining the Social Order
  • concern shifts toward obeying laws to maintain society
  • 3). Postconventional Morality: people are less concerned with maintaing society for its own sake and more concerned with principles and values for a good society
  • Stage 5: Social Contract and Individual Rights
  • emphasize basic rights and the democratic processes that give everyone a say
  • (Stage 6: define principles by which agreement which will be more just)
  • Theoritic stage- lack of just reasoning
  • Criticisms of Kohlberg's Theory
  • Culturally Biased
  • morals vary across
  • Gender Biased
  • women score differently but are just as moral
  • Limited
  • morality conists of more than just an ability to think sophisticated
  • Adulthood
  • physical changes
  • Only 30% of physical losses of old age are genetically based- other 70% do with psychological factors
  • actions speak louder than words 
  • Memory
  • decrease occurs with age
  • Alzheimer's Disease
  • Progressive and Irreversible 
  • Caused by Deterioation of Neurons producing Acetylcholine
  • Cross-sectional studies: intelligence declines with age
  • Longitudinal studies: intelligence remains stable
  • Crystallized intelligence(accumulation) increases
  • Fluid intelligece(ability to reason quickly) decreases with age
  • Love
  • like people when we perceive interactions with them are profitable
  • Attraction
  • "Beauty is a greater recommendation than any letter of introduction" - Aristotle
  • More attractive people are treated better
  • Halo effect: what is beautiful is seen as good
  • beautiful people are assumed to be good
  • varies to what culture defines as good
  • Situational Factors(attraction and likeability)
  • Proximity: liking the ones that are near
  • necessary but not sufficient condition
  • strong correlation between proximity and attraction/likeability
  • why does it work?
  • rewarding, distance is costly
  • increases Familiarity
  • Familiarity
  • mere exposure effect
  • negative = does Not work
  • positive= slightly
  • neutral= turns into positive
  • influential become
  • unfamiliarity = possible threat
  • familiar----similarity----liking
  • Similarity
  • most demographics
  • one exception: dominant and submissive people
  • Reassuring to meet others like us
  • Way you are is valued by someone else
  • More likely to like us
  • Fewer points of disagreement
  • Adulthood: Life Satisfaction
  • Happiness requires:
  • love 
  • work
  • marital satisfaction tends to decline when children arrive
  • old = unhappy is a fallacy e.g. 16 countries example