Intro to Psychology: Study Guide Exam 1 (2/20)

Psychology- the scientific study of behavior and the mind
behavior: observable actions
mind: subjective experiences

Chapter One: Methods

Hypothesis- testable relationship between two constructs

cannot be proved true; only can prove falsity
support with data and more complexity makes it become a theory

Theory- organized set of principles used to explain observed phenomena

testing: predictions--research tests--either confirmed or not--more or less confidence

Random Sample-each person in the population has an equal chance of inclusion

phone book and college student selection would NOT be random sampling because the choices in the groups are too alike: college = 3% of majority, phone book= zip code

Three Research Methods

Observational
Correlational
Experimental

Observational

Focus: Description

observes people and systematically records measurements of their behavior
ex: archival analysis

Pros

nice place to start

Cons

Hard to

Implement
Quantify

Bias

Correlational

Focus: Prediction

observe the relationship between two or more variables

Pros

able to study issues that would be otherwise unethical or impossible
Efficient:allows more collection of info and test more relationships

Cons

CANNOT conclude a casual relationship

Correlation Coefficient-statistic that assesses the relationship between two variables:

how strongly and what direction associated

positive/negative

Experimental

Focus: Causality
Requires:
Manipulation of one or more variables

Vary variables of interest across groups and keep everything else constant
Independent Variable(IV): factor manipulated by researcher and the cause of change in
Dependent Variable(DV): outcome being studied/evaluated, the response to IV

Random Assignment

each participant in the sample has an equal likelihood of being placed in any condition
NOT the same as Random Sampling
CRUCIAL: necessary to establish causality
If people are assigned randomly to different groups , any difference has to be cause by IV

Correlational vs Experimental Recap

C = varies naturally
E = manipulated by researcher

Random Assignment

C= NO
E= YES

Test Causality

C= NO
E= YES

Validity in Research

Two types associated with research

Internal Validity- the effects in the DV are caused by the IV
External Validity- degree to which research findings can be generalized to "real world" effects

Experimental Settings

Field Experiment- examines behavior in its natural habitat

pro: high in

Laboratory Experiment- done in artificial setting
Solution:

do both

Bias in Research

Experimenter Bias
Subject Bias

Experimenter Bias

Subtle cues from researchers may influence participants' behavior

e.g. Clever Hans and his 'counting' horse

Solutions

"Blind" Research Assistants
Standardize research procedures

Subject Bias

Mere fact of knowing you're studied can alter your behavior
Solutions

Unobtrusive measures
Do Not Tell participants goals or hypotheses

Ethical Issues

Mandated:

Informed Consent
Debriefing
Weighing of benefits and costs of research

Chapter Two: Biological Psychology

Biological Psychology-study of the brain, nervous system, genetics and how they relate to behavior and mental processes

how this unobservable physiological process influences behavior

Outline of Primary Parts

The Nervous System
Neurons
The Brain
Drugs and their Effects

The Nervous System

definition: electrochemical communication network that connects the brain and spinal cord to all organs, muscles, and glands
Central Nervous System (CNS): brain and spinal cord
Peripheral Nervous System(PNS): nerves that radiate from the spinal cord (CNS) to the rest of the body

Somatic Nervous System: transmits signals from sensory organs to CNS and from CNS to skeletal muscles
Automatic Nervous System: connects CNS to smooth involuntary muscles and organs and to glands

Sympathetic division: prepares body to react and expend energy in time of stress

fight/flight

Parasympathetic division: conserves resources; maintain bodily functions

rest and digestion

CNS

Spinal cord relays messages btwn brain and extremities
receives signals from our senses, relays them to brain, and sends info back from brain to control behavior

Signals: Senses---Brain---Control behavior

reflexes

behaviors controlled by solely by the spinal cord

PNS

bundles of axons that communicate between spinal cord and rest of body
divided into subsystems:

Somatic Nervous System
Automatic Nervous System

Sympathetic Division
Parasympathetic Division

Somatic Nervous System

Voluntary
Communicates between brain and skeletal muscles

Info: Senses----SNS-----CNS-----Muscles

Automatic Nervous System

Involuntary
between the brain and the heart,lungs, organs,+ glands

Neuron

types

Sensory: tissue and sensory organs to brain and spinal cord(CNS)
Motor: outgoing info from CNS to muscles and glands
Interneurons: internal communicate between sensory inputs and motor outputs

Reflex: Sensory----Interneuron----Motor in reaction to pain stimuli
Action Potential

fired by

receives signals from sense receptors
stimulated by chemical messages

Resting Potential is Negative Inside Neuron
Action Potential

Opens Na+ gates = Na+ Passes Inside Neuron
Subsequently Opens K+ Gates = K+ Passes Inside Neuron
Process Continues Down Neuron
Proton Pump Restores Initial Resting Action Potential Inside Neuron

Types of Neurotransmitters

Acetylcholine(ACH):

one of the most common NT
every junction between motor neuron and skeletal muscle
Released, muscle contracts
Blocked, muscle can't contract(botulin)
Undersupply = Alzheimer's

Endorphins:

natural opiates released in response to pain and vigorous exercise

Dopamine:

excite or inhibit depends on receptors on other neurons
influences

movement
learning
attention
emotion

too much- schizophrenia
too little - Parkinson's

Seratonin:

mood regulation
also controls

sleep
eating
arousal
pain

targeted by many anti-depressants (SSRIs)

Hindbrain: structures responsible for basic functions for sustainability

Brain Stem(Medulla and Pons): nerve cells in the medulla connect with the body to perform basic functions without conscious control
Cerebellum(little brain): lobe-like structure at brain's base that specializes in coordination and timing of details of movement

Midbrain: structures that control basic sensory responses and those in control of voluntary movement

location: above hindbrain
primary function: relay station between sensory and motor areas

e.g: tectum: coordinates sensation of movement with actions

includes neurons that

contain dense dopamine concentrations
activity that sends messages to higher brain centers that control movement

Forebrain

most visibly obvious
critical to complex processes

memory
emotion
thinking and reasoning

substructures

Basal Ganglia

planned voluntary movements and reward processing
substructure: Nucleus Accumbens

experiences all sorts of pleasure and reward

Limbic System and Amgydala

Limbic System

integrated network involved in emotion and memory
location: border (limbus) between brain's older parts and cerebral hemispheres
several substructures:

Amgydala
Hippocampus
Hypothalamus
Thalamus

Amgydala:

facilitates:

memory formation for emotional events
mediates fear responses
plays role in recognizing/interpreting facial expressions

freezing response due to connection with adaptive to fear nervous system structures

Hippocampus:

critical for learning and formation of new memories

Hypothalamus:

thermostat maintaining apt body temp. and regulating drives with the endocrine system

e.g. orgasm

Thalamus:

involved in relaying sensory info to different areas of brain
most incoming sensory info is routed here and then to more specialized areas of cortex

Book Info

Thalamus

directs messages to sensory receiving areas of cortex
replies to cerebellum and medulla

Medulla

controls heartbeat and breathing, base of brain stem

Brainstem

extension of spinal cord, responsible for automatic survival functions
parts

Medulla
Pons
Reticular formation
Thalamus

Limbic System

parts

Amygdala
Pituitary gland
Hypothalamus
Hippocampus

Amygdala

linked to emotion

primarily influence aggression and fear

linked to sleep paralysis

Hypothalamus

bodily maintenance

eating for example

linked to emotion and reward
help govern endocrine system

influences Pituitary gland

Reticular formation

helps control arousal

Hippocampus

linked to memory

Gilal cells (gila)

support, nourish and protect neurons

Frontal Lobe

involved in

speaking
muscle movement
making plans
judgment(depressant impairs this)

Parietal Lobe

receives sensory input for touch and body position

Occipital Lobe

Visual lobe

Motor Cortex

voluntary movements

Temporal Lobes

hearing
object recognition

Werenke's Area

Association areas

higher mental functions

Neuron

Axon

extension of neuron through which messages are sent to other neurons

process = action potential

Dendrites

receive messages from other cells

Mybelin sheath

covering for axon
increases speed

Synapse

junction for communication between two neurons undergoing action potential

Action Potential

cause by stimulation and depolarization
Sodium in
Potassium out
resting potential = negative

restored via proton pump

Plasticity

ability of brain to change by reorganization
prime = young childhood

Corpus Callosum

large band of neural fibers that

connect two brain hemispheres
carries messages between them

Left Hemisphere

Speech Generator
Math
Speaking/calculating tasks
Explains Behavior
Analytic

Right Hemisphere

Speech Comprehension
Visual-Spatial skills
Perceptual tasks
Sense of Self
Creative

Endocrine system

secondary communication system to nervous system, uses hormones

Chapter Three: States of Consciousness

Consciousness: awareness of ourselves and our environments
Book information

Dual Processing

info is simultaneously processed on separate conscious and unconscious tracks

Selective Attention: focusing of conscious awareness on a particular stimulus

cocktail effect- one voice heard among many
inattentional blindness- visual object unseen due to attention being elsewhere
change blindness- failure to notice change in environment

REM rebound

tendency for REM sleep to increase following REM sleep deprivation ( created by repeated awakenings during REM sleep)

Dissociation

split in consciousness, which allows some thoughts and behaviors to occur simultaneously with others

Psychoactive drug

alters perceptions and moods

Tolerance

diminishing effect of drug, leads to larger doses

Withdrawal

discomfort and distress following discontinued use of addictive drug

Physical dependence

physiological need marked by unpleasant withdrawal symptoms

Psychological dependence

relieve negative emotions, psychological need

Addiction

compulsive craving and use spite of consequences

Methaphetamine

all effects of amphetamines in addition to reducing baseline dopamine levels

Sleep = Unconsciousness Because..

Brain continues to process information both external and internally generated
Brain remains active
Easily awakened

Theories for Necessity of Sleep

Protection from dark

evolutionary perspective: also from predators

Restores Body Tissue and Allows Brain to Reorganize itself and Consolidate Memories
Allows us to Grow

Pituitary Gland releases hormone

Sleep Research

Genetic variability in need
sleep at least 9 hrs without disturbances

keeps track of sleep debt for at least two weeks

7-8 hrs sleep tend to outlive those who sleep less
Sleep-Wake Cycle

major period night
smaller period afternoon
Naps: focus attention and help make complicated decisions

Circadian Rhythm : biological clock regulates body rhythms every 24 hours

largely affected by sleep-inducing hormone, Melatonin

produced in pineal gland
only produced in darkness
bright light inhibits melatonin and resents clock
thought to contribute to depression

Morningness-Eveningness

Horne and Ostberg, 1976

stable preferences for different times of day
thought to be function of variance in circadian rhythms in body temps and endocrine secretion
Morning people- peak body temp and alertness earlier in day
Evening people- peak body temp and alertness later in day

Sleep Stages

sleep cycle: 90 minutes
5 stages and regress through them
before falling asleep, when mind is relaxed and awake = alpha waves
Stage 1

5 minutes
Fantastic images, hallucination
Sensation of falling, floating, jerking

Stage 2

20 minutes
can wake up without difficulty but clearly asleep
Sleep-talking: can begin here but also occur in other stages
spindles: bursts of rapid brain activity; happen here

Stage 3

30 minutes
Transitional
Delta Waves begin to be slowly emitted

Stage 4

30 minutes
Slow-wave sleep
Delta Waves
Hard to awaken
End of stage: sleepwalking/bedwetting

Stage 5

Regress through Stage 3----Stage 2: REM

REM periods get longer as night progresses

10 minutes
Brain waves nearly resemble that of Stage 1 EXCEPT

heart rate rises, breathing increases, eye movement

Beginning of a Dream
about 20-25 % of sleep
Brain's cortex active

Brainstem blocks messages = relaxed

Sleep Disorders

stress during day = average of 1 hr less sleep each night
Insomnia: persistent problems in falling/staying asleep

10-15% of adults retain it
stimulants cause overload for half of it

Narcolepsy: people spontaneously collapse into REM sleep

1 in 2000
absence of neural center that produces neurotransmitter hypocretin
New research: might be auto-immune disease

Sleep Apnea: intermittently stop breathing during sleep

1 in 20 (mostly overweight men)
causes CNS to stop functioning

Parasomnias:

sleep-walking, sleep-talking, tooth grinding
Night terrors: sitting up, walking around, talking, heightened heart rate
More common in kids, not unusual in adults
Generally happen in DEEP sleep = stages 3 and 4, NOT REM

Sleep Deprivation

peak age of occurrence: 20
exhibit slower reaction times and increased errors
Cumulative

body needs to make up for lost time the next night

Level Alteration

Lowers Leptin

signal of starvation

Raises Ghrelin

increased appetite

body mass index proportional to sleep loss

Dreams

tend to be about what we did during the day
The 5 Theories for why

Psychoanalytic perspective
Activation-synthesis theory
Neurocognitive theory
File away Memories
Develop/Preserve Neural Pathways

Psychoanalytic Perspective(Freud)

Freud: dream as wish fulfillment
Dream = royal road to understanding unconsciousness

Manifest Content: what a person remembers and consciously considers
Latent Content: underlying hidden meaning (symbols)

Dreams are disguised fulfillment of repressed infantile wish

Freud used free association and dream analysis to access unconscious conflicts

most adult dreams can be traced back to erotic wishes
Weakness: difficult to test scientifically

Activation-Synthesis: brain experiences spontaneous activity as sensations

Pons Input: activate image producing area of brain
Amygdala has increased activity
lack of activity in frontal lobe
links sensations together in synthesized pattern

some aspects of brain related to dream activity
damage to limbic system = dream impairment

meaning = by product, assigned by personality
Weakness: difficult to test scientifically

Neurocognitive Theory: dreams = "special" kind of thinking

persistent cortex activity
reduced sensory stimulation
loss of voluntary control of thinking
ability to recall dreams require cognitive maturity

elements of what's on mind
adult ones usually boring

File Memories: Information processing in which sort the day's experiences and encode them in memory

REM sleep

storage of memory
erasure of memory
resolution of emotional experiences
transfer of memory from hippocampus to long term storage

Develop/Preserve Neural Pathways: Physiological function to

stimulate brain and develop/preserve neurons

dream to exercise synapses

infants with developing neural systems have abundant sleep

REM sleep has changes in breathing, blood flow to brain, brain activity

Sleep Paralysis

experience

wake up paralyzed, detects presence, feels fear, perceives buzzing and strange lights

dreaming while awake

Hypnosis

suggestion that certain perceptions, feelings, thoughts, or behaviors will occur
depends on suggestibility

those with rich imagination are susceptible

trance state

extreme suggestibility, relaxation, heightened imagination

daydreaming comparison
age regression cannot occur
posthypnotic suggestion:

carried out after hypnosis
worked to alleviate headaches, stress, asthma
can't work with drugs/addictions

Other Priming Methods

Memory task

prime = words asked to memorize

Scrambled sentence task

prime = words' relating to prime

Word search

encoded in word search = prime

Physical presence of Stimuli

Subliminal Priming

to quick to be aware of
steps

brief presentation
mask with other stimulus

happy followed by XXX

Chapter 5: Developmental Psychology

Book Info

Maturation

biological growth processes that enable orderly changes in behavior, relatively unaffected by experience

Zygote (2 weeks)--Embryo(end of 2 weeks to 9)----Fetus(9 weeks to birth

Teratogens

chemicals and viruses that can harm embryo or fetus

Habituation

less responsiveness with repeated situations

Autism

disorder in children marked by deficient communication, interaction, and understanding others

Stranger Anxiety

begins at 8 months

Imprinting

process of form attachments during critical period

Critical Period

optimal period shortly after birth when certain exposure to stimuli and environment produces proper development

Basic Trust(Erik Erikson)

apt experiences with care givers develop sense of predictable and trustworthy world during infancy

Menarhce - first menstrual period
REST WILL BE LOOKED AND HIGHLIGHTED IN BOOK
Developmental Psychology
§The study of how people grow, mature, and change over the life span

Key themes

Nature vs. nurture: how do genetic factors versus situation factors influence our development

Continuity vs. stages: does development occur gradually or w/in clear stages

Stability vs. change: how consistent are we as people from one stage in life to another?

Research strategies:

Cross-sectional: people of different ages are examined at the same time and their responses are compared

Longitudinal: same subjects are retested at different times in their lives

Infants Research

Habituation:

An infant will indicate interest with its gaze

An infant will become “habituated” to a visual stimulus = way to asses perception/memory

Turns towards human voices

An infant will suck on a pacifier more vigorously when it hears its mother’s voice

Prefers objects 8-12 inches away

Typical distance of mother to infant when nursing

Recognizes mother’s smell

A baby will turn towards the smell of its mother

Prefers objects that look like human faces

Preference for “beautiful” faces = symmetrical

Prefers higher-pitched voices and “baby talk”

parents in many cultures use exaggerated speech and high-pitched voices dubbed "parentese."

The Infant: Neural Development

Babies have most of the brain cells they will ever have

But their nervous system is still developing = they have less neural connections

Growth spurt from 3-6 in frontal lobes that enables rational planning

Association areas last to develop

Neural pathways for language/agility surge until puberty when pruning process occurs

Children’s memories are processed differently after 4

Cognitive Development: Jean Piaget (1896-1980)

How do children incorporate new information with what they already know?

They form schemas – mental representations of the world

They assimilate new info into schemas and adjust schemas (accommodate) to fit new info

Theory: children are curious, active, intelligent and constructive thinkers with a DIFFERENT TYPE of logic

Cognitive development stages Piaget

Sensorimotor stage (birth-2 yrs)

Experience the world through sensory and motor interactions

E.g. looking, hearing, touching, mouthing, grasping

2 Key aspects:

1) Lack of object permanence: awareness that objects continue to exist when not perceived

Acquire object permanence ~ 8 months

2) Separation anxiety: acquisition of object permanence = misses mother

Preoperational stage (2-6 years)

Children too young to perform mental operations

Words and images are used to symbolize objects

2 key aspects:

1) Conservation: No understanding of conservation – physical properties of an object stay the same

2) Egocentrism: unable to adopt another perspective, self-centered

Concrete operational stage (7-12)

Definied by acquisition of:

Logical reasoning: grasp the idea of conservation

Perspective taking: no longer egocentric

Grouping

Subgroups/ serialization

Can add and subtract without counting

Formal operational stage (12 yr +)

Reasoning expands from concrete to

Reasoning on a logical, hypothetical level

Abstract thinking

Systematic reasoning, but may occur earlier than Piaget had thought

Self-concept develops

Piaget’s legacy

1st to realize that children actively construct meaning

Children aren’t developmentally ready for certain tasks until they are at the stage

Cognitive milestones

BUT: Development is more continuous than Piaget thought

Evidence of each “stage” occurs earlier than Piaget though

Children have high suggestibility

Social Development: Attachment styles:

Harlow:

studied attachment in primates

Separated infant rhesus monkeys form mothers after birth and provided them with two dummy ‘mother’ options

Wire mother with feeding bottle

Cloth mother

*NB: monkeys preferred cloth mothers

What happens when babies are deprived of social contact?

When monkeys reared in total isolation were placed with other monkeys their age, they either cowered in fright or lashed out aggressively

When they reached sexual maturity, many were incapable of mating

If artificially impregnated, they were neglectful and sometimes murdered their offspring

Strange situation test

Ainsworth:

Strange situation test to determine strength/nature of attachment bonds b/w mothers and infants (12-18 months)

Results

Final stage of test:

the stranger leaves and the mother returns to comfort her infant.

DV: the infant's reaction to reunion with mother

the degree to which the infant seeks/avoids proximity to mother

the degree to which infant tries to maintain/resist contact with his mother

Three Attachment groups (based on results)

Secure: upset at departure but comforted upon return

Avoidant: no distress at departure, nor response upon return

Anxious-Ambivalent: upset at departure, difficulty in being comforted upon return

What causes attachment style?

Several key aspects:

1) Responsiveness of parental behaviour

2) Consistency and sensitivity of care

Expectations developed with primary caregiver thought to serve as a template for future relationships

*NB: ‘insecure’ attachment only evident in times of stress or conflict!

(Avoidant) : I am somewhat uncomfortable being close to another; I find it difficult to trust them completely, difficult to allow myself to depend on them. I am nervous when he/she gets too close, and often, the he/she wants me to be more intimate than I feel comfortable being

(Anxious-ambivalent) : I find that the other person is reluctant to get as close as I would like. I often worry that he/she doesn’t really love me or won’t want to stay with me. I want to get very close him/her, and this sometimes scares him/her away.

(Secure) : I find it relatively easy to get close to another and am comfortable depending on him/her. I don’t often worry about being abandoned or about him/her getting too close to me.

Attachment Style in Adults

Hazan & Shaver, 1987

Attachment style originates from relationship with primary caregiver = working models

Model of self: expectation of whether the self is worthy of support and affection

Model of other: expectation of the likelihood that other people are reliable and will treat the self well

Translates to how individuals act in romantic relationships

“Style” evident in times of stress

Attachment styles

Secure:

Responsive caregiver

trusting, view that one is worthy and well-liked

Satisfying romantic relationships

Anxious-Ambivalent:

Erratic caregiver

Fall in love easily, worries, fear of being abandoned, idealizes and devaluates partner,

Relationship = emotional highs and lows, jealousy and conflict

Avoidant

Negligent caregiver

Independent, difficulty with intimacy, preference for social distance

low levels of intimacy, commitment and satisfaction, and high levels of negative emotional experiences

Coping strategies

Secure: talk to partner

Anxious: rumination

Avoidant: distancing

Distribution in population

56% Secure, 25% Avoidant, 19% Anxious

Gender differences

Men more likely to be avoidant, women more likely to be anxious

Avoidant & Anxious-Ambivalent pairings

Secure buffer

Continuous vs. categorical

4 category model

Static vs. flexible

Problems with attachment styles

Several continued criticisms of attachment style research:

1) Attachment styles are just another personality variable

2) Attachment styles have no tested, organized universal format or standard

Continuous? Categorical? 3? 4? Hierarchical? WHO KNOWS

Everyone is just focused on a little piece of the puzzle

Stages of Social Development

Erik Erikson

Development of "Ego Identity"

changes constantly with regards to environment

experience of self based on interactions

Competence and personal adequacy

each stage = different aspect of mastery

stage managed well = feelings of competence

stage managed poorly = feelings of inadequacy

Erikson's 8 Stages of Life

Stage 1: Infancy

Trust vs Mistrust: How can I be secure?

upbringing and learning

Stage 2: Early Childhood

Autonomy vs. Shame/Doubt: ....be independent?

controlling parents---fail----shame/doubt

Stage 3: Childhood (play age)

Initiative vs Guilt: .....be powerful?

excessive punishment = guilt

no punishment = excessive initiative/power

Stage 4: Childhood(school age)

Industry vs Inferiority: .... be good?

master task = feelings of capability, industry

fail task = feelings of inferiority

Stage 5: Adolescence/ Young Adulthood

Identity vs Role confusion: ... who am I? how do I fit in the adult world?

resolution = live up to who you are

failure = matching personality of others to blend

Stage 6: Young Adulthood

Intimacy vs Isolation: how can I love?

share self with people = success

fail = isolate

Stage 7: Mature Adulthood

Generativity vs Stagnation: ..be creative?

break from mold = success

"conform" = fail

Stage 8: Old Age

Ego Integrity vs Despair: have I accomplished what I would've liked

retrospection

Adolescence

sexual maturity----------socially achieving adult status

surging hormones

frontal lobe lags behind the rest of the developing system

lose unused neural connections

Frontal Lobe Maturation

Moral Development in Adolescents

Kohlberg

key step in personal growth = distinguishing right from wrong

moral thinking steps occurs in stages

3 main stages

provides moral dilemmas to children

Answers = Unimportant

Reasoning = Important

Kohlberg's Moral Reasoning Stages

1). Preconventional (before 9): obey to avoid punishment or gain reward

Stage 1: Obedience and Punishment Orientation

what is right up to authorities

Stage 2: Indivudalism and Exchange

recognizing there are many different perspectives; useful to make deals and exchange favors with others

2). Conventional Morality : peoplt think as members of the conventional society with its values, norms, and expectations

Stage 3: Good Interpersonal Relationships

emphasize helpful motives toward close people

Stage 4: Maintaining the Social Order

concern shifts toward obeying laws to maintain society

3). Postconventional Morality: people are less concerned with maintaing society for its own sake and more concerned with principles and values for a good society

Stage 5: Social Contract and Individual Rights

emphasize basic rights and the democratic processes that give everyone a say

(Stage 6: define principles by which agreement which will be more just)

Theoritic stage- lack of just reasoning

Criticisms of Kohlberg's Theory

Culturally Biased

morals vary across

Gender Biased

women score differently but are just as moral

Limited

morality conists of more than just an ability to think sophisticated

Adulthood

physical changes

Only 30% of physical losses of old age are genetically based- other 70% do with psychological factors

actions speak louder than words

Memory

decrease occurs with age

Alzheimer's Disease

Progressive and Irreversible

Caused by Deterioation of Neurons producing Acetylcholine

Cross-sectional studies: intelligence declines with age

Longitudinal studies: intelligence remains stable

Crystallized intelligence(accumulation) increases

Fluid intelligece(ability to reason quickly) decreases with age

Love

like people when we perceive interactions with them are profitable

Attraction

"Beauty is a greater recommendation than any letter of introduction" - Aristotle

More attractive people are treated better

Halo effect: what is beautiful is seen as good

beautiful people are assumed to be good

varies to what culture defines as good

Situational Factors(attraction and likeability)

Proximity: liking the ones that are near

necessary but not sufficient condition

strong correlation between proximity and attraction/likeability

why does it work?

rewarding, distance is costly

increases Familiarity

Familiarity

mere exposure effect

negative = does Not work

positive= slightly

neutral= turns into positive

influential become

unfamiliarity = possible threat

familiar----similarity----liking

Similarity

most demographics

one exception: dominant and submissive people

Reassuring to meet others like us

Way you are is valued by someone else

More likely to like us

Fewer points of disagreement

Adulthood: Life Satisfaction

Happiness requires:

love

work

marital satisfaction tends to decline when children arrive

old = unhappy is a fallacy e.g. 16 countries example

Intro to Psychology

Monday, February 20, 2012

Study Guide Exam 1 (2/20)

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