4/24-4/26: Psychological Disorders

• Psychological Disorder = ongoing pattern of thoughts, feelings and actions that are deviant, distressful and/or dysfunctional
• has to be: deviant--------------> distressful
• has to be: deviant------->distressful-------->dysfunctional
• behavior judged to be atypical, disturbing, maladaptive and unjustifiable
• DSM-IV = classifies psychological disorders
• describes disorders
• no explanations of causes
• Defines Diagnostic process and 16 clinical syndromes
• DSM-IV Axes
• Axis 1: Clinical syndrome present?
• 16 clusters
• bigger motivator than 2 or 3
• Axis 2: Personality Disorder or Mental Retardation?
• Axis 3: General Medical Condition?
• Axis 4: Psychosocial or Environmental problems?
• Axis 5: Global Assessment of person's Functioning
• 0-100
• Axis 1: Clinical Disorders
• 16 Clusters of Syndromes
• Anxiety Disorders: distressing persistent anxiety or maladaptive anxiety-reducing behavior
• Generalized anxiety disorder: Continually tense and apprehensive but can't ID cause
• higher autonomic nervous system arousal
• tough sleep
• 2/3 women
• mistreated as children
• typically accompanied by depression
• not over age 50
• Panic disorder: Episodes of intense dread
• 1/75 people escalate into Panic Attacks = terror, chest pain, choking, trembling, dizziness
• Mistaken for heart attack
• Phobia: persistent, irrational fear and avoidance of specific object
• Specific phobias
• Social phobia: intense fear of being scrutinized by others
• Agoraphobia: fear of inescapable situations w/ no immediate help
• avoid elevators, outside home, crowds
• Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD): unwanted obsessions and/or compulsions
• Obsessions
• Persistent thoughts, ideas that invade person's consciousness
• Compulsions
• Repeated and rigid behaviors or mental acts people feel must perform to prevent/reduce anxiety
• Obsessions-------> Anxiety; Compulsions Reduce anxiety
• Anxiety rises if obsessions and compulsions avoided
• Typical Small scale Obsessions = Normal people
• Minor obsessions = adaptive
• rituals relieve stress
• Disorder = Interferes with normal social Functioning
• Time-consuming = rituals and obsessions
• Obsessions that something Terrible will happen
• excessive hand-washing
• Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD): reliving traumatic event repeatedly via:
• Symptoms
• Haunting Memories
• Nightmares
• Social withdrawal
• Anxiety 
• Insomnia 
• Symptoms present-  >= 4 Weeks
• How do Anxiety disorders Develop?
• Learning
• Classical conditioning- unpredictable and uncontrollable bad events
• ex: attacked on street. associate street with bad. fear elicited on streets
• Observational Learning brings about fears
• Operant Conditioning and OCD
• associate fear with stimuli- rituals
• Biology
• Genetic Predisposition - particular fears and anxiety
• Identical twins develop Similar Phobias together or apart
• Dissociative Disorders
• Dissociation: significant aspects of experiences are kept separate and distinct
• Individual experiences disruptions- typically response to traumatic event
• pretend happened someone else, get rid of stress
• Dissociative Identity Disorder (DID): 2 or more distinct and alternating Personalities
• each personality = own Voice and Mannerisms
• Alters = Dramatically Different characteristics
• Vital statistics:
• e.g. age, sex, race, and family history
• Abilities and Preferences: Encyclopedic knowledge affected in DID
• alters have different areas of expertise
• Unique set of memories, behaviors, thoughts, and emotions = Alters
• One dominates at a time
• Primary/host personality = appear more often, who you are
• Transition = sudden and dramatic
• 100 Alters maximum
• Typical types of Alters:
•  Host- Exhausted and Depressed
• Protector - Strong, Angry
• Child - Scared, Hurt
• Helper
• Persecutor blaming one or more of the alters
• Used to think 2 or 3 alters
• now 15 = women 8= men
• Late Adolescence or Early Adulthood = Cases
• Symptoms begin = before age 5
• How Common?
• 1000s
• Reasons:
• Clinicians Willing to make diagnosis
• Diagnostic----->Accurate
• Cons: All Cases = Iatrogenic (Artificial)
• unintentionally produced by Practitioners
• DID cases surfaced After treatment
• Legitimacy = ??  Reluctant to Diagnose
• Support for DID
• Different Personalities = Different Memories
• Test Differently
• Differ Physiologically
• voice, facial expressions, handwriting, allergies, 
• Handedness differentiation
• Criticisms for DID
• 50% Denial
• 2 per decade 1930-1960------> 20,000 in 1980s
• # Alters: 3 to 12
• Twin studies = No Genetic link
• Mood Disorders
• Emotional Extremes
• Major Depressive disorder = 2 or more Weeks of Irrational Depression
• feelings of worthlessness, diminished interest 
• Bipolar disorder: Alternating between Depression and Mania
• Mania: state of euphoria and great energy with grandiose optimism and self-esteem
• Depression
• common
• Women = 2x Likely
• Internalized response
• ~50% recover = 6 weeks, 90% = year
• most 1 other episode at some point
• Symptoms differ dramatically for individuals
• other aspects than sadness
• 5 main areas of Functioning affected:
• Emotional symptoms
• Motivational symptoms
• Everything requires Effort
• Behavioral symptoms
• exceedingly Negative self-view
• Cognitive symptoms
• Distracted Easily
• Physical symptoms
• Arm hurts but not physical cause
• Symptoms Exacerbate each other
• Stress = Trigger
• More stressful events genereal predate depression
• focus: Situation and Internal aspects
• Genetic factors
• Biological Predisposition
• Relatives = 20%
• General Population = 10%
• Neurotransmitters: Serotonin and Norepinephrine
• Serotonin = feel good
• Norepinephrine = energizer
• 1950s blood pressure medications caused depression
• lowered serotonin, lowered norepinephrine
• Socio-Cognitive factors
• Learned Helplessness
• Thinking of Event = Crucial
• depressed when think that:
• No Control over Reinforcements in lives
• Responsible for Helpless state
• Attribution theory focus (Explanatory style)
•  Negative events attributes---> Internal, Global and Stable 
• Negative Explanatory style = Blame Self 
• Positive Explanatory style = Blame Others
• = Helplessness and possibly Depression
• positive = blame environment
• No Hopelessness = No Depression
• Socio-Cultural Causes
• Social Support = Key
• Perceived Availability of Social Support
• Marital status
• Isolation and Lack of Intimacy 
• Cycle of Depression
• #1 Stressful Experience
• #2 Negative Explanatory Style
• #3 Depressed mood
• #4 Cognitive and Behavioral changes------> #1 again
• Bipolar disorder
• Onset = 15 to 44 years of age
• Episodes Subside eventually but Recur later
• Equally Common
• Mania Symptoms (5)
• Emotional
• Active, powerful search of outlet
• Motivational
• Need for Excitement, Involvement, Companionship
• Behavioral
• Very Active - Move and Talk Rapidly
• Cognitive
• Overly Optimistic and prone to Poor Judgment/ No Planning
• Physical
• High Energy - little to no rest
• Causes of Depression v Bipolar
• Originally thought relationship b/w high Norepinephrine levels and mania
• Low Serotonin may permit Norepinephrine activity to define form disorder will take
• Low Serotonin + Low Norepinephrine = Depression
• Low Serotonin + High Norepinephrine = Bipolar
• Schizophrenia
• Misconceptions:
• NOT Dissociative Identity disorder
• DO NOT tend to be Violent toward self or others
• Not all cases = Chronic
• 1/3 Chronic 1/3 Episodes 1/3 Complete Remission
• 10% = Hospitalized Life
• Prevalence
• 1/100 people world
• Equal across Gender
• Men get symptoms = Earlier
• Lower levels = More Frequently
• Previously "catachall" diagnosis
• much more refined today's DSM

4/17 and 4/24: Social Psychology- Attitudes+the Self, Relationships

Attitude

• Attitude: categorize stimulus along an evaluative dimension based on 3 components:
• Affective: emotions and affection (positive or negative)
• Behavioral: how you act toward object
• Cognitive: thoughts you have about the object (facts, knowledge, beliefs)
• Attitudes affect behavior?
• Attitudes = Poor predictors of actions
• Changing attitudes typical fail changing behavior
• LaPiere (1934)
• 92% said wouldn't accept Chinese guests
• All but 1 accepted them
• What Attitudes Affect behavior?
• Strong attitudes
• Important attitudes
• Easily Accessed attitudes
• Formed via Direct Experience attitudes
• Certain to you attitudes
• Attitude Theories
• Cognitive Dissonance Theory (Festinger 1957)
• Dissonance: psychological tension results behavior inconsistent w/ attitudes
• reduce dissonance and regain consistency 
• Dissonance Reduction methods
• Change behavior
• quit smoking
• Trivialize dissonance
• Change attitudes
• weakness in studies linking smoking to cancer
• Add cognitions
• help me relax
• Example of Reducing Dissonance - Smoking
• Change Cognition A: I smoke-----> I don't smoke
• Change Cognition B: I smoke cigarettes + Research has Flaws instead of truth
• Add Cognition C: I smoke + Diseases+ They help me= relax
• Do all Inconsistent behaviors cause Dissonance?
• Cooper and Fazio, 1984
• No. Experience dissonance, behavior must be:
• Freely chosen
• Negative foreseeable consequences
• Responsible for choice felt
• Label arousal as negative
• believe arousal caused by something else, no dissonance
• Subtypes of Dissonance
• Insufficient Justification
• Fraternity initiation- think fraternity awesome to justify hazing
• Festinger and Carlsmith, 1959 - peg turning task
• Aronson and Mills, 1959(initiation into group)
• Post-decision dissonance
• Brehm, 1965: Difficult choice between 2 equally desirable items
• e.g. Droid vs Iphone
• Ignore Pros of other
• Spreading of alternatives
• Maximize difference in your decision's favor
• "I always knew she was the one"
• Compliance Techniques (4) (Cialdini)
• Foot-in-the-door technique: inducing a person to agree small request 1st
• Example: Wear Campaign Button; later, Ask for Billboard on their Lawn
• Why work
• Cognitive dissonance theory: desire to appear consistent in choices
• Door-in-the-face technique: Large request, then Smaller request
• Why work
• want to appear reasonable and good and maintain self-esteem
• Reducing request = Favor; Complying = Reciprocation
• Low-ball technique: ask someone agree to something basis of incomplete info
• becoming attached positively to object
• bid more/pay more than if knew all info
• That's-not-all technique: product high price, improve deal via adding product or lowering price
• salseman = reasonable, doing favor; reciprocate favor by buying

Self

• Synyder's Self-Monitoring Scale (Self-esteem = SE)
• degree regulate behavior match situation
• High Self-monitor 
• Social Chameleons
• Public self used
• Third Person talk
• Public self-consciousness Higher
• Pros
• Do Well in Social Situations
• Cons
• Insincere; Fake 
• Low Self-monitor 
• Consistent across situations
• Private self used
• First person speech
• Private self-consciousness Higher
• Pros
• People Know you
• Cons
• potential Social Ramifications
• Self-esteem- positive and negative self-evaluations
• State of Mind vs. Trait
• State of Mind = Situation dependent
• Trait = Same regardless
• Functions
• Leary (1995): Sociometer hypothesis
• High vs Low Self-Esteem
• High SE
• Highly Positive self-views
• Successful coping stressful times and setbacks
• More Thorough and Precise Self-knowledge
• Low SE
• Pessimistic; prone to thinking failure
• Adverse reactions to negative feedback
• Unrealistic goals tendency
• Enhancing Self-estemm: BIRGing
• BIRGing ( = Basking In Reflected Glory
• Cialdini 1976
•  Football games affect University T-shirts use
• Win = more
• Lose = less
• Larger Margin of victory = Larger # of shirts
• "We" won vs. "They" lost
• CORFing = Cutting Off Reflected Failure
• Association Hurts SE = Cut off ties
• Self-esteem Maintenance Model
• Tesser, 1988
• People behave in manner maintain self-esteem
• How does another's performance Affect us?
• Influence depends:
• Quality of performance
• Closeness of other
• Relevance of dimension
• Factors interact different ways to maintain self-esteem
• Close other X good performance X non relevant dimension = increased self evaluation by reflection (BIRGing)
• Close other X good performance X relevant dimension = decreased SE by comparison (downward comparison)
• What happens when SE suffers?
• Close other Outperforms Self on Relevant dimension:
• Sabotage Other's performance
• Alter Self's performance
• Alter Closeness with Other
• Change self-definition

Relationships

• Evolutionary Theory
• "Marketplace theory" 
• Women = Value Status 
• Men = Value Attractiveness
• Gender difference in Personal ads
• High income man seek attractive woman
• Attractive woman seek well off man
• Attractive women more likely marry successful men
• Why?
• Function of ability to Propagate Genes (Buss 1988,1989,1990)
• Male reproductive success = frequent pairings
• Female's reproductive success = finding provider
• Female's Youth-----> fertility sign
• Male's Status-------> ability to provide
• Support
• Men more likely to prefer youth and appearance = most important
• Women more likely look for "ambition, hard-working"
• Gender differences in Jealousy
• Buss, Larsen, Westen, Semmelroth (1992)
• Gender differences in Mate Preferences----> gender differences in Jealousy
• Asked imagine past relationship; Asked which Worse- Emotional or Sexual Betrayal
• Differences
• Men = 60% Sexual behavior worse
• Women = 80% Emotional worse
• Jealously- function of evolution
• Male = function of Reproductive Uncertainty
• don't know for certain baby = theirs
• Female = function of Resource Uncertainty
• money and house = certain ? 
• Cons
• Can't do Experiments
• Another explanation for Jealousy Differences
• Double-shot theory: one infidelity implies other has happened too
• woman = man's emotional infidelity implies sexual infidelity has occurred
• man = woman's sexual infidelity implies emotional infidelity has occurred
• theory has been experimentally tested
• Communal vs. Exchange relationships (all relationships)
• Communal vs. Exchange (Clark and Mills 1979)
• Exchange: Tit-for-tat
• Communal: Expectations of Mutual Responsiveness
• Communal = Close friendships and Meaningful relationships
• Exchange = Superficial relationships w/ strangers and acquaintances
• Exchange
• Immediate repayment
• helped by acquaintance, repay it
• Want Own Contribution to be Distinguished
• Care about other's needs = Expecting Payback
• Helping each other = no change in mood
• Communal
• Immediate repayment may cause decreased in liking
• immediate repay = no trust of having back in future
• No clear distinction b/w our work and others
• " you did it. no, we did it"
• Care about other's needs even w/out payback
• trust they care/ will get your back sometime later
• Helping other = feel good
• Beginning of most friendships
• Michelangelo Phenomenon (romantic relationships)
• Self does not emerge independently; shaped by interpersonal experience
• Sculpting: mold each other's dispositions values and behavioral tendencies over time to reveal ideal self
• "Chip away" some aspects = reveal partner's ideal self
• Affirmation: partner elicits values and behaviors that are congruent with the self's ideal
• Partner Perceptual affirmation: degree to partner's perceptions of the self is congruent with ideal self
• See partner's true self
• Partner Behavioral affirmation: degree to partner's behaviors toward self is congruent with ideal self
• Bring out partner's true self
• Problems with Sculpting
• Sculpting = continuum ranging form
• Affirmation----> Failure to affirm-----> Disaffirmation
• Failure to Affirm: Partner elicits dispositions, values and behaviors that may be irrelevant to self’s ideal 
• Disaffirmation: Partner elicits dispositions, values and behaviors that may be antithetical to self’s ideal  
• Michelangelo Phenomenon
• At Best: Perceptual Affirmation----> Behavioral Affirmation-----> Self movement toward Ideal-----> Couple Well-being
• partner----------------->ideal self
• At Worst: Perceptual Disaffirmation-----> Behavioral Disaffirmation-----> Movement Away from Ideal-----> Deterioration of Couple Well-being
• ideal self... partner-------------------->
• Myths about Conflict
• Conflict can Always be Avoided
• Conflict = result from Misunderstandings and Unnecessary
• Conflict = Sign of Poor relationship
• How we deal with it
• Bad fights: Goal = Win
• Good fights: Goal = Compromise
• 4 types of Fighting Couples - John Gottman 
• Volatile: conflict part of a larger passionate and loving relationship
• big fight, bigger make-up
• 5-1 ratio
• Validaters: Fair, Equal fights
• self-control and calm; validate other perspective
• 5-1 ratio
• Avoiders: Fight, Go away, Everything's fine
• "agree to disagree"
• 5-1 ratio
• Hostile: Frequent volatile fights
• 1-1 ratio
• 4 horsemen of the apocalypse: 
• Contempt
• "eye-rolling"
• Criticism
• Defensiveness
• Withdrawing 
• 5-1 ratio = Good
• Demand-Withdraw cycle
• One partner demands change, other partner withdraws
• Women = 2x likely make demand ; Why?
• Conflict-structure hypothesis: Women Most Want Change; Changer likely occupy Demand Role
• Women = less power ; want change more
• Cycle
• W demands, M withdraws
• W demands because M withdrew
• M withdraws because W's demands escalate
• W becomes frustrated at M's withdrawal

4/12: Personality - Eysenck and Big Five; Social Psychology Part 1

Eysenck

• Introversion/Extroversion (1)
• Introvert (I) - quieter, reserved, routine, to themselves
• Extrovert (E)- louder, sociable, unpredictable, needs others
• Emotional Stability/Instability (2)
• 4 Types of People 
• Sanguine
• Phlegmatic
• Melancholic
• Choleric
• Eysenck's Theory
• I = higher level of stimulation ARAS
• E= lower level of stimulation
• Gale's Optimal level = apt stimulation for task wanted
• Eysenck's Theory Revised
• I = More Arousability
• NOT higher level

Big 5

• O.C.E.A.N.
• Openess
• curious novel ideas, unconventional
• Conscientiousness
• organization, plan-oriented, meticulous 
• Extraversion
• extrovert/introvert
• Agreeableness
• cooperative, accommodating, no conflict
• Neuroticism
• sadness, anxiety
• Big 5 Criticisms
• Openess = Troublesome 5th factor
• content and replicability
• many different labels
• Not necessarily Comprehensive: other traits such as masculinity suggested
• Evaluating Personality Inventories
• Pros
• Easier, cheaper and faster to administer than Projective
• Objectively scored and standardized
• Appear = Greater Reliability and Validity
• not highly valid= can't analyze from MMPI alone
• Cons
• Tests fail to allow cultural differences in responses
• Measured traits cannot be directly examined

Social Psychology

• Definition: study of how we think about, influence, and relate to each other
• Power of:
• Situation
• Person
• Importance of Cogntition
• Focuses on 
• Interpersonal level of analysis
• 'Normal' populations; reaction of average individual to situation
• Empirical - experiments, data
• Social Influence and Conformity
• Social Influence: how other people and groups influences individual's behavior
• 3 types of changing one's behavior
• Conformity: consistent with Group Norms
• least coercive
• Compliance: Direct Request
• Obedience: Order from Authority Figure
• most coercive
• Conformity
• Two Reasons Why
• Informational influence
• Normative influence
• Informational social influence
• others = source of info
• desire to be right
• believe others can interpret ambiguous situation
• others can help us choose apt course of action
• Sherif, 1936
• Autokinetic effect - how fast light moved
• Asked how fast moving
• First alone
• Later in groups
• call out estimates
• Results: people's answers converged
• When Conform
• Situation = Ambiguous
• most crucial variable
• Situation = Crisis
• limited time, others intensify panic
• Others = Experts
• looked to; not always reliable
• Normative social influence
• Social norms: implicit/explicit rules for acceptable behavior
• Greatest Influence
• Uncertain Conditions
• Similar Source
• Concerned about Relationship with Source
• Most Salient norm = Influence behavior
• How react to unambiguous stimuli?
• Asch study = one seen @ class with confederates saying wrong answer on line comparisons
• 76% conformed with wrong answer at least wrong
• Didn't want to look foolish; knew right answer though
• How do we know this isn't informational social conformity?
• Private responding = didn't conform
• Why do we Conform?
• Informational influence: others' behavior ---> info
• More Ambiguity-----> More Likely Conform
• Leads to Private Acceptance
• Normative influence: Social Approval
• Asch studies
• Leads to Public Compliance
• Normative Social Influence in our Lives
• Social Influence and Women's Body Image
• Social Influence: Women from Heavier----->Thinner
• eating disorder
• Social Influence and Men's Body Image
• Social Influence: Men Stronger
• steroids, aggression
• Consequences of Not Conforming
• Convincing Deviant to Conform, e.g. 1st = Talking; 2nd = Punishing; 3rd = Ignoring
• Remain Deviant = Social Rejection
• Idiosyncratic credits
• allowed to deviate a little if conformed a lot
• Power of Obedience
• Crimes of Obedienc
• The Nazis, A few Good men
• Milgram's Shock generator
• recruit via newspaper
• confederate = participant in disguise
• expresses concern about heart condition
• confederate gets answers wrong------>participant shocks confederate
• Shock Recipient (recorded response)
• interjects----> owww----> begs to leave due to heart----->absolute silence
• Absolute silence: no response = wrong response -----> Shock
• Obeyed up to Very Strong Shock
• Over 60% shocked person at Death level
• Results of Obedience Levels:
• Research Command = 65%
• Fellow Subject Command = 20%
• Victim Command = 0%
• Two Researchers w/ Contrary Commands = 0%
• Message: Authority's Order = Crucial
• Why do we Obey Authority Figures?
• Motivation Choose Correctly
• Authorities = Experts
• Short-cut ---> Choosing Correctly

4/10: Personality - Jung, Alder, and Horney

• Overview of Neo-Analytic theorists
• Carl Jung
• self-hood
• Alfed Adler
• inferiority and goals
• Karen Horney
• new conception of women
• Neo-Analytic Movement
• Freud's psychoanalysis-----> new directions
• Emphasize Ego more important than ID
• Ego = sense of self arises throughout conflict and interactions with others
• Eventual discarding of Freudian ID but still emphasized motivations ans social interactions
• Social Variables= Important
• Less Bio, More Social, more Optimistic
• Carl Jung - Selfhood 
• Fight with Freud Centered on
• Spirtuality > Sexuality
• Disputed Freud's strcture of mind
• Personal and Collective unconscious
• Jund divived mind into 3 parts
• Concscious Ego
• Personal Unconscious
• Collective Unconscious ( original part)
• Collective Unconscious (unique to Jung)
• Deeper level, collective memory with humanity like genetic code
• made up of archetypes
• Archetypes: powerful emotional symbols common to all people that predispose us to act in predetermined ways
• cause of mental disorders = fail acknowledge unacceptable archetypes in collective unconsicous
• examples
• Animus(male) and Anima(female) sides of personality
• Mother vs Father
• Birth vs Death
• Persona (self) and Shadow ( destructive tendencies of self)
• Hero and Demon
• Modern Psych doubts existence of Collective Unconscious
• believes shared interests
• Jung's Principal of Opposites (Traits): Traits are favored among opposing pairs of tendencies/dispositions and comprise personality
• Evaluating Jung's Contributions
• Cons
• No objective observation or testing
• Pros
• Challenged Freud = opened door to alternate personality theories
• Notion of Personality Types: pillar of trait type approach
• Alfred Adler - Inferiority and Goals
• Fight with Freud
• Goal Directedness = Main Motivator
• Development governed by goals
• Goals unify personality
• Fictional finalism:  no hindrances of inferiority complexes in front of fictional goals, motivating but never achieved
• Future-oriented
• Concerned with Social Conditions
• Preventative measures to avoid Disturbance in Personality
• Adler's Key Aspects
• Early childhood experiences
• Key = Overcoming Inferiority
• Compensatory process
• Strive for Superiority
• Birth order- creates expectations and goals
• Future experiences
• Lifestyle = response
• Healthy: Adaptive ways of responding
• Mistaken: Maladaptve ways of responding
• Goals
• Future-oriented
• Unify persoanlity
• Governs Development
• Fictional Finalism
• Guiding self-ideal each person
• Motivating yet never achieved
• Partly known
• Not competitive
• Inferiority
• Inferior feelings drive personality
• Motivating force
• Origins in Infancy
• Not considered abnormal
• Inferiority Complex - pervasive feelings of helplessness and sadness
• Defense = Superiority complex
• false feelings of power and security to conceal inferiority complex
• Birth Order
• Based on interactions with siblings
• Different types of parental attention
• Influence goals
• 4 Types Birth Orders
• First-born: Exaggerated sense of own Importance
• dethronement = feared
• competitive; concerned about being replaced/surpassed
• Second-born: Less sensitive to Power issues, High achiever
• inferiority of comparison to first born motivates them
• Youngest child: Spoiled which Undermines Survival desire
• Only Child: Non-Dethroned First Born
• strange adaptations in school
• Support:
• Biology confounded with rearing order; Not totally supported
• Adler's Contributions
• Cons
• Not all hypotheses supported by research
• first born and only child = higher levels of achievement
• Idea on need for power shapes behavior = Influential
• Karen Horney -  New Conception of Women
• Rejected penis envy idea
• Reason for inferior feeling:
• Social position and independence
• Upbringing
• masculine vs femininty
• Men might be unconsicously envious of feminine qualitites
• Agreed on Freudian idea of unconscious motivations in childhood
• Believed:
• Basic Anxiwty = Child discovers own helplesness
• Internal anxiety focused out and in
• Neurotic = basic anxiety out of control
• People can mainfest neurotic needs to extremes
• Neurotic Coping Strategies
• Moving Toward Others
• Neurotice Need: Constant reminders of Love and Approval
• Moving Against others
• Neurotic Need: Power and Social Recognition
• Moving Away from Others
• Neurotic Need: Personal Admiration and Perfection
• Horney's Contributions
• Cons
• Weak Scientific foundation
• Lack of Operation terms, 
• Difficult to Test
• Trait Perspective
• Personality inventories: gauge wide range of feelings and behaviors
• Objective scoring, not subjective
• Personality type = Genes + Environment 
• even animals have personalities
• Is Personality Stable? (Yes)
• Stability in Personality and Behavior patterns Over Time
• People are consistently inconsistent- similar patterns across same situations
• Time Frame and Traumatic Events need to be taken into account
• Personality inventories
• measure broad personality characteristics
• focus on behavior, beliefs, and feelings
• based on self-reported responses
• Most Widely Used
• MMPI Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory
• Eysenck's Introversion/Extroversion
• Big Five
• MMPI
• 550 self-statements answered: T, F, Cannot Say
• Phsycial concerns, mood, morale, attitudes toward establishments, psychological symptoms
• now look at patterns, before spike on one scale only
• 84% original questions, revised in 1977 establish new normals
• Assesses Careless Responding and Lying
• when put front, when careless
• 10 Clinical Scales: 0-120 score
• > 70 = Deviant (psych disorders)
• Graphed= Create Profile

4/5 : Freud and Personality

•  Levels of Focus (3)
• Societal level- trends of social behavior
• Sociology
• No research or experiments; Description method
• Individual level- unique life history and psychological characteristics
• Clinical and Personality psychologists
• P = average C = troubled
• Differentiation
• Interpersonal level- person's social situation
• Social psychologists
• S = average + environment
• Behavior Elicited from Environment
• Personality: individual's characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling, and acting
• differ = individual personality
• Perspectives
• Freud's Psychodynamic
• Neo-Freudians
• Trait perspective

Freud Psychoanalytic Psychoanalysis: thoughts and actions---> unconscious motives and conflicts

• Unconsicous: portion nonaccessible to conscious thought
• Access via Talking Methods:
• Free Association
• say anything comes to mind - reveal 
• Dream Analysis
• playground for infantile unconscious wished
• Paraphraxes
• slip of tounge reveal insight
• filter out unconscious 
• Personality arises from: Aggressive Pleasure-seeking Impulses vs Social Constraints
• Transference: social mental scripts
• ID = basic drives (It)
• most primitive part of mind; innate
• aggrssion, lust, sexuality death
• primarily unconscious
• Operates = Pleasure Principle ----> Wish Fulfillment
• Strives to Satisfy Basic Drives to Reduce Inner Tension
• Unrealistic Thinking
• Ego = Reality Check (I)
• Constrains Id to Reality
• 2-3 years of age
• All levels of consciousness
• Reality Principle
• what's possible given situation
• Secondary process thinking
• rational; weighing things out
• Mediator between ID and Superego, ID and Reality
• Superego = Morality (Over I)
• Internalizes Values, Morals, Norms, and Ideals of society
• Develops around age 5
• All levels of consciousnesses too
• Perfection Principle
• how you, things, ought to be
• Ego Ideal
• Conscience
• Introjection - incorporate parents' values
• Conscious
• Working Memory; Awarness
• Preconscious
• Ordinary memory easily brought into awareness
• Unconscious
• Unawareness
• Psychosexual Stages of Development
• Conflict not resolved = Fixation
• Fixation = emotionally stuck at a given stage
• less energy to confront later stages
• Stages
• Oral
• Anal
• Phallic
• Latency
• Genital
• 1st 3 stages = Most Important
• forms personality by age 5
• major sources of physical stimulation
• Oral Stage- 18 months after birth
• Pleasure and tension reduction = mouth, lips, tongue
• Primary conflict = weaning
• Secondary conflict- biting
• Key aspect: Dependency 
• determinant of fixation = parents' reactions to baby's needs
• Overindulge = Fixation
• Undergratified = Reluctant Leave Stage
• Fixated Oral Receptive = dependent, orally preoccupied
• Fixated- Oral Aggressive = Pleasure from biting---> verbal aggression and biting sarcasm
• Anal stage: 18 months - 3 years; Pooping
• Key Aspect: Self Control
• Conflict - self-control and toilet training
• Praised by parents = productive and creative
• Shamed by parents = fixated
• Anal Expulsive: messy, cruel, destructive, potty mouth
• Anal Retentive: everything has to be in order
• Phallic Stage: 3-5 years of age ; Ejaculation
• Key aspect: Close personal relationship w/ parents = Self Worth
• Oedipal Complex, castration anxiety = rendered impotent; compete for mom
• resolution = id with father---> masculine identity
• Electra Complex, penis envy = penis source of power; compete for dad
• id with mom----> feminine identity
• Identification = reduces guilt-laden hostility and ambivalence for same sex parent
• represents beginning of internalization of superego
• Fixation 
• Men: alpha male
• Women: tease
• Latency stage: 6- Puberty
• Lack of Specific Sexual Conflicts
• Consolidate Superego, focuses intellectual development
• Genital Stage: Puberty - Death
• Reached via resolving conflicts prior stages
• Focus: Mutual Sexual Gratification
• Anxiety and Defense Mechanisms
• Ego Battles ID, Superego and outsideworld
• creates conflict = anxiety
• Activated defense mechanisms fight anxiety
• unconscious ways rid anxiety
• Defense Mechanisms
• Repression -   Threatening Thoughts----> Unconscious
• Reaction Formation - Exact Opposition to Unconscious Desires
• Denial-   Refuse acknowldedge anxiety provoking events
• Projection-   Anxiety provoking Impulses----->People have them
• Sublimation-   Dangerous Urges-----> Socially Acceptable Behavior
• Regression-   Return to earlier 'safer' time
• Rationalization-  Logical explanations for Impulse driven Behavior
• Displacement-  Reaction from Real Source-----> Safer individual/object
• Projective Tests Measure Unconscious
• Interpret Vague and Ambiguous Stimuli ; Open-ended instructions
• no anxiety to defend
• Used by Psychodynamic practicioners
• Most popular
• Rorschach- ambiguous stimuli, ink blots
• Breakdown
• What seen
• Where seen
• What Features used
• At least 14 responses
• ~50 min take. 95 minutes interpret
• Thematic Appreciation (TAT)
• Reveals unconscious fantasies
• Tell story of people in drawing
• Themes = focus
• not structure of personality
• Sentence completion: clincial test, fill in blanks of sentences
• I wish _______
• Draw-a-Person (DAP) test
• "Draw a person"
• "Draw another person of the opposite sex"
• Criteria
• Quality of drawing
• screens for cognitive maturity, adjustment, impusliveness
• Overall mood of drawing
• convey's person views
• Specific details
• unusual characteristics 
• Integrated with other info of person
• Diagnostic tool
• Evalutating Projective tests
• Pros
• allow to provide info not available from self report tests
• useful when hesitation to acquire negative info
• Cons
• hours to score and interpret
• adds little info beyond other tests
• rarely showed reliability or validity
• overpathologize
• may be biased against minority ethnic groups
• Take home message
• useful supplementary info
• not used as diagnostic tool
• Major Freudian Weaknesses
• Pessimistic
• emphasizes early experiences and destructive inner urges
• first 5 years personality determined
• Difficult to Study Empirically and Disconfirm
• Explain = Always
• Predict = Never
• Lifetime development or later relationships
• Male behavior is the norm and superior; hetero is only way
• Freudian Contributions
• Scientific exploration of:
• Personality 
• Behavior
• Sexuality =Motivating Force
• Importance of 
• Childhood in Shaping Personality
•  Unconscious

Exam 2 Review Session

• Intermittent Reinforcement Schedules
• Fixed: stays the same
• Fixed Interval- set time period
•  Fixed Ratio - set quantity
• Variable: varies each time
• Variable Interval- unpredictable time period each time
• 10 minutes then 4 seconds
• Variable Ratio- unpredictable amount of number each time
• 4 then 7 then 3
• most resistant to extinction
• Top-Down processing vs Bottom-Up processing ( Happens Simultaneously)
• Bottom-Up = Sensory info----Memory
• Processing raw sensory info
• Sensation
• Top-Down = Perceiving info----- assign Meaning
• Thinking, Memory, Attention
• Perception
• Recency vs Primary Effect - Serial Position effect
• Primary - 1st things remembered; Longest Time to process info
• Recency- Last things remembered; Most Fresh
• Retrograde Amnesia vs Antregrade Amnesia
• Antregrade- new memories cannot be formed
• damage to Hippocampus
• left - verbal memories
• right - visual memories
• also can be cause by damage to prefrontal cortex
• Korsakoff’s syndrom
• Confabulations
• Retrograde - old memories can't be retrieved
• Interference
• Proactive - old info affects learning of new info
• locker combination
• Retroactive - new info takes place of old info
• forget old telephone number 
• Heuristics
• Availability - readily available then it must happen often
• Difference Threshold (JND) vs Absolute Threshold
• JND
• minimum difference we can detect half of the time
• e.g. someone changing volume of music
• Weber's Law
• JND measured in proportion % rather than an amount
• 1 ounce to 10 ounce weight - noticed; 1 ounce to 100 ounce - unnoticed
• Absolute Threshold
• minimum amount of stimulus needed to detect something half of the time
• predicting something being there; e.g. hearing distant sounds
• varies with age
• Subliminal Messaging
• doesn't work in everyday life
• TV media violence
• can't say there's a causation
• can say there's a definite relationship with large-size effect
• makes violence more accessible in mind
• Intelligence Theories
• g = Spearman
• factor analyses multiple = Thurstone
• Thurnstone and Spearman Hierarchical agreement
• 8 Intelligences = Gardner
• Savant Syndrome = Gardner
• 3 Aspects of Intelligence = Sternberg
• Analytical
• Creative
• Practical
• 5 Concepts of Creativity = Sternberg

3/29: Intelligence

• * Do NOT have to study Stereotype Threat
• Intelligence- mental quality consisting of ability to learn from experience, solve problems, and use knowledge to adapt to new situations
• Measurement of Intelligence
• General Ability or Several Specific Abilities?
• Disagreement on Correlates
• Considered a Concept
• Intelligence = General Ability?
• Charles Spearman: ONE general intelligence (g) underlies specific mental abilities
• score high on one factor, score high on others
• Thurstone
• pioneer of Multiple Factor Analyses
• Several Factors found by statistical analyses on exams of various intellectual abilites 
• given labels such as verbal comprehension, numerical ability, spatial reasoning, and memory
• Gardner: we have independent multiple intelligences
• Gardner's 8 Intelligences
• verbal, spatial, understanding self, nature, math, movement, understanding others, music
• Savant Syndrome: limited mental capacities but an island of exceptional talent
• Hierarchical compromise  between Spearman and Thurstone
• model in which specific abilities existed and were important but were all somewhat related to another and a global general intelligence
• Robert Sternberg: Three Aspects of intelligence
• Analytical: intelligence tests
• Practical: required for everyday tasks
• Creative: adapting to new situations, generating new ideas
• Intelligence vs Creativity
• Creativity: ability to produce novel and valuable ideas
• Intelligence = Creativity
• score 120 necessary but not sufficient for creativity
• very creative, don't tend extreme intelligence
• Convergent vs Divergent thinking
• Convergent = one right answer ; intelligence
• Divergent = multiple answers ; creativity
• sometimes subject to expectations and pressures
• Sternberg's 5 Components of Creativity
• Expertise - some knowledge of what you're being creative with
• Imaginative Thinking Skills - ability to see things in new ways
• Venturesome Personality - tolerate ambiguity, overcome obstacles, talk to many people
• Intrinsic Motivation- not reliant on external rewards
• Creative Environment - mentor, access to internet, etc.
• Emotional Intelligence: managing and understanding emotion
• 4 Components
• Perceive emotions - recognize
• Understand emotions - comprehend the type of emotion
• Manage emotions - help others/self
• Use emotions
• positively correlated with increased job performance
• How Measure Intelligence?
• Small correlation of +.15 head size and intelligence score
• Larger correlation of +.33 brain volume and intelligence score
• more intelligent, more brain synapses
• take in info more quickly and faster brain wave responses to stimuli
• look how individuals think and solve problems
• Trial and error
• Algorithm: step by step procedures
• Insight: solution comes to mind suddenly
• Heuristics: mental shortcuts, rules of thumb
• Heuristics: mental shortcuts to make quick and efficient judgments
• help select apt schema to use for processing
• 4 main types
• Availability heuristic
• Representativeness heuristic
• Anchoring and Adjustment heuristic
• Simulation heuristic
• Availability heuristic: base judgement on ease with which they can bring something to mind
• Representativeness heuristic: classify something on how similar is to a typical case (schema)
• e.g. quiet and organized representss librarian more than manager
• not a problem unless ignore base rate information
• Anchoring and Adjustment heuristic: uses number or value as starting point and adjusts one's answer away from anchor
• don't often adjust away from anchor enough
• most common anchor = self
• Simulation heuristic: ease of imagining something happening, influences reactions to it
• e.g. bronze medalists happier than silver medalists
• Intelligence test: assessing mental aptitudes and comparing to others
• Francis Galton: 1st psychologist to develop mental tests
• measures now outdated
• all intelligent people together, breed more intelligent race
• IQ test
• first made by Alfred Binet
• assumed all children follow same intellectual development
• Mental age: age at which child was performing at, relative to chronological age
• goal: ID children that needed help
• Lewis Terman
• Binet's norms didn't fit Californian children
• Adapted Binet's IQ test
• Stanford-Binet (SB) Intelligence Quotient
• IQ= mental age/chronological age x 100
• worked for children but not adults
• Current IQ test
• represents test-taker's ability relative to average performance of other own age
• average = 100
• WAIS: most commenly used intelligence test
• yields single full-scale intelligence score, 4 index scores and 12 specific subset scores
• Hierarchical model of intelligence with "g" and specific areas of ability "s"
• Like SB IQ, raw scores compared with age-based experiences
• average = 100 standard deviation = 15
• 2 Types of Mental Ability tests
• Aptitude tests: predict ability to learn new skill (SAT)
• Achievement tests: reflect what you already know (exams)
• Analogies: measure both aptitude and achievement
• Principals of Test Construction
• 3 Criteria
• Standardized
• Reliable
• Valid
• Standardized: person's performance meaningfully compared to others
• Reliable: dependably consistent scores
• two halves of test
• re-testing
• SB, and WAIS have +.9 reliability
• Valid: measures what it's supposed to
• Predictive validity: predict later performance
• Nature vs Nurture in Intelligence
• Genetic component
• Identical twins reared together = virtually same score
• Identical twins reared apart scores suggests 70% of intelligence is genetic
• ranges 50-75%
• Genes importnat to intelligence and learning disabilities
• Polygenetic: many genes involved, each less than 1% of variance in intelligence
• Environmental component
• adoption enhances intelligence scores of mistreated and neglected children
• fraternal twins tend score alike based on how treated
• Plomin and DeFries
• Adopted and children's scores correlate highly with birth parents