Psychology- the scientific study of behavior and the mind
behavior: observable actions
mind: subjective experiences
Chapter One: Methods
- Hypothesis- testable relationship between two constructs
- cannot be proved true; only can prove falsity
- support with data and more complexity makes it become a theory
- Theory- organized set of principles used to explain observed phenomena
- testing: predictions--research tests--either confirmed or not--more or less confidence
- Random Sample-each person in the population has an equal chance of inclusion
- phone book and college student selection would NOT be random sampling because the choices in the groups are too alike: college = 3% of majority, phone book= zip code
- Three Research Methods
- Observational
- Correlational
- Experimental
- Observational
- Focus: Description
- observes people and systematically records measurements of their behavior
- ex: archival analysis
- Pros
- Cons
- Correlational
- Focus: Prediction
- observe the relationship between two or more variables
- Pros
- able to study issues that would be otherwise unethical or impossible
- Efficient:allows more collection of info and test more relationships
- Cons
- CANNOT conclude a casual relationship
- Correlation Coefficient-statistic that assesses the relationship between two variables:
- how strongly and what direction associated
- Experimental
- Focus: Causality
- Requires:
- Manipulation of one or more variables
- Vary variables of interest across groups and keep everything else constant
- Independent Variable(IV): factor manipulated by researcher and the cause of change in
- Dependent Variable(DV): outcome being studied/evaluated, the response to IV
- Random Assignment
- each participant in the sample has an equal likelihood of being placed in any condition
- NOT the same as Random Sampling
- CRUCIAL: necessary to establish causality
- If people are assigned randomly to different groups , any difference has to be cause by IV
- Correlational vs Experimental Recap
- IV
- C = varies naturally
- E = manipulated by researcher
- Random Assignment
- Test Causality
- Validity in Research
- Two types associated with research
- Internal Validity- the effects in the DV are caused by the IV
- External Validity- degree to which research findings can be generalized to "real world" effects
- Experimental Settings
- Field Experiment- examines behavior in its natural habitat
- Laboratory Experiment- done in artificial setting
- Solution:
- Bias in Research
- Experimenter Bias
- Subject Bias
- Experimenter Bias
- Subtle cues from researchers may influence participants' behavior
- e.g. Clever Hans and his 'counting' horse
- Solutions
- "Blind" Research Assistants
- Standardize research procedures
- Subject Bias
- Mere fact of knowing you're studied can alter your behavior
- Solutions
- Unobtrusive measures
- Do Not Tell participants goals or hypotheses
- Ethical Issues
- Mandated:
- Informed Consent
- Debriefing
- Weighing of benefits and costs of research
Chapter Two: Biological Psychology - Biological Psychology-study of the brain, nervous system, genetics and how they relate to behavior and mental processes
- how this unobservable physiological process influences behavior
- Outline of Primary Parts
- The Nervous System
- Neurons
- The Brain
- Drugs and their Effects
- The Nervous System
- definition: electrochemical communication network that connects the brain and spinal cord to all organs, muscles, and glands
- Central Nervous System (CNS): brain and spinal cord
- Peripheral Nervous System(PNS): nerves that radiate from the spinal cord (CNS) to the rest of the body
- Somatic Nervous System: transmits signals from sensory organs to CNS and from CNS to skeletal muscles
- Automatic Nervous System: connects CNS to smooth involuntary muscles and organs and to glands
- Sympathetic division: prepares body to react and expend energy in time of stress
- Parasympathetic division: conserves resources; maintain bodily functions
- CNS
- Spinal cord relays messages btwn brain and extremities
- receives signals from our senses, relays them to brain, and sends info back from brain to control behavior
- Signals: Senses---Brain---Control behavior
- reflexes
- behaviors controlled by solely by the spinal cord
- PNS
- bundles of axons that communicate between spinal cord and rest of body
- divided into subsystems:
- Somatic Nervous System
- Automatic Nervous System
- Sympathetic Division
- Parasympathetic Division
- Somatic Nervous System
- Voluntary
- Communicates between brain and skeletal muscles
- Info: Senses----SNS-----CNS-----Muscles
- Automatic Nervous System
- Involuntary
- between the brain and the heart,lungs, organs,+ glands
- Neuron
- types
- Sensory: tissue and sensory organs to brain and spinal cord(CNS)
- Motor: outgoing info from CNS to muscles and glands
- Interneurons: internal communicate between sensory inputs and motor outputs
- Reflex: Sensory----Interneuron----Motor in reaction to pain stimuli
- Action Potential
- fired by
- receives signals from sense receptors
- stimulated by chemical messages
- Resting Potential is Negative Inside Neuron
- Action Potential
- Opens Na+ gates = Na+ Passes Inside Neuron
- Subsequently Opens K+ Gates = K+ Passes Inside Neuron
- Process Continues Down Neuron
- Proton Pump Restores Initial Resting Action Potential Inside Neuron
- Types of Neurotransmitters
- Acetylcholine(ACH):
- one of the most common NT
- every junction between motor neuron and skeletal muscle
- Released, muscle contracts
- Blocked, muscle can't contract(botulin)
- Undersupply = Alzheimer's
- Endorphins:
- natural opiates released in response to pain and vigorous exercise
- Dopamine:
- excite or inhibit depends on receptors on other neurons
- influences
- movement
- learning
- attention
- emotion
- too much- schizophrenia
- too little - Parkinson's
- Seratonin:
- mood regulation
- also controls
- sleep
- eating
- arousal
- pain
- targeted by many anti-depressants (SSRIs)
- Hindbrain: structures responsible for basic functions for sustainability
- Brain Stem(Medulla and Pons): nerve cells in the medulla connect with the body to perform basic functions without conscious control
- Cerebellum(little brain): lobe-like structure at brain's base that specializes in coordination and timing of details of movement
- Midbrain: structures that control basic sensory responses and those in control of voluntary movement
- location: above hindbrain
- primary function: relay station between sensory and motor areas
- e.g: tectum: coordinates sensation of movement with actions
- includes neurons that
- contain dense dopamine concentrations
- activity that sends messages to higher brain centers that control movement
- Forebrain
- most visibly obvious
- critical to complex processes
- memory
- emotion
- thinking and reasoning
- substructures
- Basal Ganglia
- planned voluntary movements and reward processing
- substructure: Nucleus Accumbens
- experiences all sorts of pleasure and reward
- Limbic System and Amgydala
- Limbic System
- integrated network involved in emotion and memory
- location: border (limbus) between brain's older parts and cerebral hemispheres
- several substructures:
- Amgydala
- Hippocampus
- Hypothalamus
- Thalamus
- Amgydala:
- facilitates:
- memory formation for emotional events
- mediates fear responses
- plays role in recognizing/interpreting facial expressions
- freezing response due to connection with adaptive to fear nervous system structures
- Hippocampus:
- critical for learning and formation of new memories
- Hypothalamus:
- thermostat maintaining apt body temp. and regulating drives with the endocrine system
- Thalamus:
- involved in relaying sensory info to different areas of brain
- most incoming sensory info is routed here and then to more specialized areas of cortex
Book Info
- Thalamus
- directs messages to sensory receiving areas of cortex
- replies to cerebellum and medulla
- Medulla
- controls heartbeat and breathing, base of brain stem
- Brainstem
- extension of spinal cord, responsible for automatic survival functions
- parts
- Medulla
- Pons
- Reticular formation
- Thalamus
- Limbic System
- parts
- Amygdala
- Pituitary gland
- Hypothalamus
- Hippocampus
- Amygdala
- linked to emotion
- primarily influence aggression and fear
- linked to sleep paralysis
- Hypothalamus
- bodily maintenance
- linked to emotion and reward
- help govern endocrine system
- influences Pituitary gland
- Reticular formation
- Hippocampus
- Gilal cells (gila)
- support, nourish and protect neurons
- Frontal Lobe
- involved in
- speaking
- muscle movement
- making plans
- judgment(depressant impairs this)
- Parietal Lobe
- receives sensory input for touch and body position
- Occipital Lobe
- Motor Cortex
- Temporal Lobes
- hearing
- object recognition
- Association areas
- Neuron
- Axon
- extension of neuron through which messages are sent to other neurons
- process = action potential
- Dendrites
- receive messages from other cells
- Mybelin sheath
- covering for axon
- increases speed
- Synapse
- junction for communication between two neurons undergoing action potential
- Action Potential
- cause by stimulation and depolarization
- Sodium in
- Potassium out
- resting potential = negative
- Plasticity
- ability of brain to change by reorganization
- prime = young childhood
- Corpus Callosum
- large band of neural fibers that
- connect two brain hemispheres
- carries messages between them
- Left Hemisphere
- Speech Generator
- Math
- Speaking/calculating tasks
- Explains Behavior
- Analytic
- Right Hemisphere
- Speech Comprehension
- Visual-Spatial skills
- Perceptual tasks
- Sense of Self
- Creative
- Endocrine system
- secondary communication system to nervous system, uses hormones
Chapter Three: States of Consciousness
- Consciousness: awareness of ourselves and our environments
- Book information
- Dual Processing
- info is simultaneously processed on separate conscious and unconscious tracks
- Selective Attention: focusing of conscious awareness on a particular stimulus
- cocktail effect- one voice heard among many
- inattentional blindness- visual object unseen due to attention being elsewhere
- change blindness- failure to notice change in environment
- REM rebound
- tendency for REM sleep to increase following REM sleep deprivation ( created by repeated awakenings during REM sleep)
- Dissociation
- split in consciousness, which allows some thoughts and behaviors to occur simultaneously with others
- Psychoactive drug
- alters perceptions and moods
- Tolerance
- diminishing effect of drug, leads to larger doses
- Withdrawal
- discomfort and distress following discontinued use of addictive drug
- Physical dependence
- physiological need marked by unpleasant withdrawal symptoms
- Psychological dependence
- relieve negative emotions, psychological need
- Addiction
- compulsive craving and use spite of consequences
- Methaphetamine
- all effects of amphetamines in addition to reducing baseline dopamine levels
- Sleep
= Unconsciousness Because..
- Brain continues to process information both external and internally generated
- Brain remains active
- Easily awakened
- Theories for Necessity of Sleep
- Protection from dark
- evolutionary perspective: also from predators
- Restores Body Tissue and Allows Brain to Reorganize itself and Consolidate Memories
- Allows us to Grow
- Pituitary Gland releases hormone
- Sleep Research
- Genetic variability in need
- sleep at least 9 hrs without disturbances
- keeps track of sleep debt for at least two weeks
- 7-8 hrs sleep tend to outlive those who sleep less
- Sleep-Wake Cycle
- major period night
- smaller period afternoon
- Naps: focus attention and help make complicated decisions
- Circadian Rhythm : biological clock regulates body rhythms every 24 hours
- largely affected by sleep-inducing hormone, Melatonin
- produced in pineal gland
- only produced in darkness
- bright light inhibits melatonin and resents clock
- thought to contribute to depression
- Morningness-Eveningness
- Horne and Ostberg, 1976
- stable preferences for different times of day
- thought to be function of variance in circadian rhythms in body temps and endocrine secretion
- Morning people- peak body temp and alertness earlier in day
- Evening people- peak body temp and alertness later in day
- Sleep Stages
- sleep cycle: 90 minutes
- 5 stages and regress through them
- before falling asleep, when mind is relaxed and awake = alpha waves
- Stage 1
- 5 minutes
- Fantastic images, hallucination
- Sensation of falling, floating, jerking
- Stage 2
- 20 minutes
- can wake up without difficulty but clearly asleep
- Sleep-talking: can begin here but also occur in other stages
- spindles: bursts of rapid brain activity; happen here
- Stage 3
- 30 minutes
- Transitional
- Delta Waves begin to be slowly emitted
- Stage 4
- 30 minutes
- Slow-wave sleep
- Delta Waves
- Hard to awaken
- End of stage: sleepwalking/bedwetting
- Stage 5
- Regress through Stage 3----Stage 2: REM
- REM periods get longer as night progresses
- 10 minutes
- Brain waves nearly resemble that of Stage 1 EXCEPT
- heart rate rises, breathing increases, eye movement
- Beginning of a Dream
- about 20-25 % of sleep
- Brain's cortex active
- Brainstem blocks messages = relaxed
- Sleep Disorders
- stress during day = average of 1 hr less sleep each night
- Insomnia: persistent problems in falling/staying asleep
- 10-15% of adults retain it
- stimulants cause overload for half of it
- Narcolepsy: people spontaneously collapse into REM sleep
- 1 in 2000
- absence of neural center that produces neurotransmitter hypocretin
- New research: might be auto-immune disease
- Sleep Apnea: intermittently stop breathing during sleep
- 1 in 20 (mostly overweight men)
- causes CNS to stop functioning
- Parasomnias:
- sleep-walking, sleep-talking, tooth grinding
- Night terrors: sitting up, walking around, talking, heightened heart rate
- More common in kids, not unusual in adults
- Generally happen in DEEP sleep = stages 3 and 4, NOT REM
- Sleep Deprivation
- peak age of occurrence: 20
- exhibit slower reaction times and increased errors
- Cumulative
- body needs to make up for lost time the next night
- Level Alteration
- Lowers Leptin
- Raises Ghrelin
- body mass index proportional to sleep loss
- Dreams
- tend to be about what we did during the day
- The 5 Theories for why
- Psychoanalytic perspective
- Activation-synthesis theory
- Neurocognitive theory
- File away Memories
- Develop/Preserve Neural Pathways
- Psychoanalytic Perspective(Freud)
- Freud: dream as wish fulfillment
- Dream = royal road to understanding unconsciousness
- Manifest Content: what a person remembers and consciously considers
- Latent Content: underlying hidden meaning (symbols)
- Dreams are disguised fulfillment of repressed infantile wish
- Freud used free association and dream analysis to access unconscious conflicts
- most adult dreams can be traced back to erotic wishes
- Weakness: difficult to test scientifically
- Activation-Synthesis: brain experiences spontaneous activity as sensations
- Pons Input: activate image producing area of brain
- Amygdala has increased activity
- lack of activity in frontal lobe
- links sensations together in synthesized pattern
- some aspects of brain related to dream activity
- damage to limbic system = dream impairment
- meaning = by product, assigned by personality
- Weakness: difficult to test scientifically
- Neurocognitive Theory: dreams = "special" kind of thinking
- persistent cortex activity
- reduced sensory stimulation
- loss of voluntary control of thinking
- ability to recall dreams require cognitive maturity
- elements of what's on mind
- adult ones usually boring
- File Memories: Information processing in which sort the day's experiences and encode them in memory
- REM sleep
- storage of memory
- erasure of memory
- resolution of emotional experiences
- transfer of memory from hippocampus to long term storage
- Develop/Preserve Neural Pathways: Physiological function to
- stimulate brain and develop/preserve neurons
- dream to exercise synapses
- infants with developing neural systems have abundant sleep
- REM sleep has changes in breathing, blood flow to brain, brain activity
- Sleep Paralysis
- experience
- wake up paralyzed, detects presence, feels fear, perceives buzzing and strange lights
- dreaming while awake
- Hypnosis
- suggestion that certain perceptions, feelings, thoughts, or behaviors will occur
- depends on suggestibility
- those with rich imagination are susceptible
- trance state
- extreme suggestibility, relaxation, heightened imagination
- daydreaming comparison
- age regression cannot occur
- posthypnotic suggestion:
- carried out after hypnosis
- worked to alleviate headaches, stress, asthma
- can't work with drugs/addictions
- Other Priming Methods
- Memory task
- prime = words asked to memorize
- Scrambled sentence task
- prime = words' relating to prime
- Word search
- encoded in word search = prime
- Physical presence of Stimuli
- Subliminal Priming
- to quick to be aware of
- steps
- brief presentation
- mask with other stimulus
Chapter 5: Developmental Psychology
Book Info
- Maturation
- biological growth processes that enable orderly changes in behavior, relatively unaffected by experience
- Zygote (2 weeks)--Embryo(end of 2 weeks to 9)----Fetus(9 weeks to birth
- Teratogens
- chemicals and viruses that can harm embryo or fetus
- Habituation
- less responsiveness with repeated situations
- Autism
- disorder in children marked by deficient communication, interaction, and understanding others
- Stranger Anxiety
- Imprinting
- process of form attachments during critical period
- Critical Period
- optimal period shortly after birth when certain exposure to stimuli and environment produces proper development
- Basic Trust(Erik Erikson)
- apt experiences with care givers develop sense of predictable and trustworthy world during infancy
- Menarhce - first menstrual period
- REST WILL BE LOOKED AND HIGHLIGHTED IN BOOK
Developmental Psychology
§The study of how people grow, mature, and change over the life span
- Key themes
- Nature vs. nurture: how do genetic factors versus situation factors influence our development
- Continuity vs. stages: does development occur gradually or w/in clear stages
- Stability vs. change: how consistent are we as people from one stage in life to another?
- Research strategies:
- Cross-sectional: people of different ages are examined at the same time and their responses are compared
- Longitudinal: same subjects are retested at different times in their lives
- Infants Research
- Habituation:
- An infant will indicate interest with its gaze
- An infant will become “habituated” to a visual stimulus = way to asses perception/memory
- Turns towards human voices
- An infant will suck on a pacifier more vigorously when it hears its mother’s voice
- Prefers objects 8-12 inches away
- Typical distance of mother to infant when nursing
- Recognizes mother’s smell
- A baby will turn towards the smell of its mother
- Prefers objects that look like human faces
- Preference for “beautiful” faces = symmetrical
- Prefers higher-pitched voices and “baby talk”
- parents in many cultures use exaggerated speech and high-pitched voices dubbed "parentese."
- The Infant: Neural Development
- Babies have most of the brain cells they will ever have
- But their nervous system is still developing = they have less neural connections
- Growth spurt from 3-6 in frontal lobes that enables rational planning
- Association areas last to develop
- Neural pathways for language/agility surge until puberty when pruning process occurs
- Children’s memories are processed differently after 4
- Cognitive Development: Jean Piaget (1896-1980)
- How do children incorporate new information with what they already know?
- They form schemas – mental representations of the world
- They assimilate new info into schemas and adjust schemas (accommodate) to fit new info
- Theory: children are curious, active, intelligent and constructive thinkers with a DIFFERENT TYPE of logic
- Cognitive development stages Piaget
- Sensorimotor stage (birth-2 yrs)
- Experience the world through sensory and motor interactions
- E.g. looking, hearing, touching, mouthing, grasping
- 2 Key aspects:
- 1) Lack of object permanence: awareness that objects continue to exist when not perceived
- Acquire object permanence ~ 8 months
- 2) Separation anxiety: acquisition of object permanence = misses mother
- Preoperational stage (2-6 years)
- Children too young to perform mental operations
- Words and images are used to symbolize objects
- 2 key aspects:
- 1) Conservation: No understanding of conservation – physical properties of an object stay the same
- 2) Egocentrism: unable to adopt another perspective, self-centered
- Concrete operational stage (7-12)
- Definied by acquisition of:
- Logical reasoning: grasp the idea of conservation
- Perspective taking: no longer egocentric
- Grouping
- Can add and subtract without counting
- Formal operational stage (12 yr +)
- Reasoning expands from concrete to
- Reasoning on a logical, hypothetical level
- Abstract thinking
- Systematic reasoning, but may occur earlier than Piaget had thought
- Self-concept develops
- Piaget’s legacy
- 1st to realize that children actively construct meaning
- Children aren’t developmentally ready for certain tasks until they are at the stage
- BUT: Development is more continuous than Piaget thought
- Evidence of each “stage” occurs earlier than Piaget though
- Children have high suggestibility
- Social Development: Attachment styles:
- Harlow:
- studied attachment in primates
- Separated infant rhesus monkeys form mothers after birth and provided them with two dummy ‘mother’ options
- Wire mother with feeding bottle
- Cloth mother
- *NB: monkeys preferred cloth mothers
- What happens when babies are deprived of social contact?
- When monkeys reared in total isolation were placed with other monkeys their age, they either cowered in fright or lashed out aggressively
- When they reached sexual maturity, many were incapable of mating
- If artificially impregnated, they were neglectful and sometimes murdered their offspring
- Strange situation test
- Ainsworth:
- Strange situation test to determine strength/nature of attachment bonds b/w mothers and infants (12-18 months)
- Results
- Final stage of test:
- the stranger leaves and the mother returns to comfort her infant.
- DV: the infant's reaction to reunion with mother
- the degree to which the infant seeks/avoids proximity to mother
- the degree to which infant tries to maintain/resist contact with his mother
- Three Attachment groups (based on results)
- Secure: upset at departure but comforted upon return
- Avoidant: no distress at departure, nor response upon return
- Anxious-Ambivalent: upset at departure, difficulty in being comforted upon return
- What causes attachment style?
- Several key aspects:
- 1) Responsiveness of parental behaviour
- 2) Consistency and sensitivity of care
- Expectations developed with primary caregiver thought to serve as a template for future relationships
- *NB: ‘insecure’ attachment only evident in times of stress or conflict!
- (Avoidant) : I am somewhat uncomfortable being close to another; I find it difficult to trust them completely, difficult to allow myself to depend on them. I am nervous when he/she gets too close, and often, the he/she wants me to be more intimate than I feel comfortable being
- (Anxious-ambivalent) : I find that the other person is reluctant to get as close as I would like. I often worry that he/she doesn’t really love me or won’t want to stay with me. I want to get very close him/her, and this sometimes scares him/her away.
- (Secure) : I find it relatively easy to get close to another and am comfortable depending on him/her. I don’t often worry about being abandoned or about him/her getting too close to me.
- Attachment Style in Adults
- Hazan & Shaver, 1987
- Attachment style originates from relationship with primary caregiver = working models
- Model of self: expectation of whether the self is worthy of support and affection
- Model of other: expectation of the likelihood that other people are reliable and will treat the self well
- Translates to how individuals act in romantic relationships
- “Style” evident in times of stress
- Attachment styles
- Secure:
- Responsive caregiver
- trusting, view that one is worthy and well-liked
- Satisfying romantic relationships
- Anxious-Ambivalent:
- Erratic caregiver
- Fall in love easily, worries, fear of being abandoned, idealizes and devaluates partner,
- Relationship = emotional highs and lows, jealousy and conflict
- Avoidant
- Negligent caregiver
- Independent, difficulty with intimacy, preference for social distance
- low levels of intimacy, commitment and satisfaction, and high levels of negative emotional experiences
- Coping strategies
- Secure: talk to partner
- Anxious: rumination
- Avoidant: distancing
- Distribution in population
- 56% Secure, 25% Avoidant, 19% Anxious
- Gender differences
- Men more likely to be avoidant, women more likely to be anxious
- Avoidant & Anxious-Ambivalent pairings
- Secure buffer
- Continuous vs. categorical
- Static vs. flexible
- Problems with attachment styles
- Several continued criticisms of attachment style research:
- 1) Attachment styles are just another personality variable
- 2) Attachment styles have no tested, organized universal format or standard
- Continuous? Categorical? 3? 4? Hierarchical? WHO KNOWS
- Everyone is just focused on a little piece of the puzzle
- Stages of Social Development
- Erik Erikson
- Development of "Ego Identity"
- changes constantly with regards to environment
- experience of self based on interactions
- Competence and personal adequacy
- each stage = different aspect of mastery
- stage managed well = feelings of competence
- stage managed poorly = feelings of inadequacy
- Erikson's 8 Stages of Life
- Stage 1: Infancy
- Trust vs Mistrust: How can I be secure?
- Stage 2: Early Childhood
- Autonomy vs. Shame/Doubt: ....be independent?
- controlling parents---fail----shame/doubt
- Stage 3: Childhood (play age)
- Initiative vs Guilt: .....be powerful?
- excessive punishment = guilt
- no punishment = excessive initiative/power
- Stage 4: Childhood(school age)
- Industry vs Inferiority: .... be good?
- master task = feelings of capability, industry
- fail task = feelings of inferiority
- Stage 5: Adolescence/ Young Adulthood
- Identity vs Role confusion: ... who am I? how do I fit in the adult world?
- resolution = live up to who you are
- failure = matching personality of others to blend
- Stage 6: Young Adulthood
- Intimacy vs Isolation: how can I love?
- share self with people = success
- fail = isolate
- Stage 7: Mature Adulthood
- Generativity vs Stagnation: ..be creative?
- break from mold = success
- "conform" = fail
- Stage 8: Old Age
- Ego Integrity vs Despair: have I accomplished what I would've liked
- Adolescence
- sexual maturity----------socially achieving adult status
- surging hormones
- frontal lobe lags behind the rest of the developing system
- lose unused neural connections
- Frontal Lobe Maturation
- Moral Development in Adolescents
- Kohlberg
- key step in personal growth = distinguishing right from wrong
- moral thinking steps occurs in stages
- provides moral dilemmas to children
- Answers = Unimportant
- Reasoning = Important
- Kohlberg's Moral Reasoning Stages
- 1). Preconventional (before 9): obey to avoid punishment or gain reward
- Stage 1: Obedience and Punishment Orientation
- what is right up to authorities
- Stage 2: Indivudalism and Exchange
- recognizing there are many different perspectives; useful to make deals and exchange favors with others
- 2). Conventional Morality : peoplt think as members of the conventional society with its values, norms, and expectations
- Stage 3: Good Interpersonal Relationships
- emphasize helpful motives toward close people
- Stage 4: Maintaining the Social Order
- concern shifts toward obeying laws to maintain society
- 3). Postconventional Morality: people are less concerned with maintaing society for its own sake and more concerned with principles and values for a good society
- Stage 5: Social Contract and Individual Rights
- emphasize basic rights and the democratic processes that give everyone a say
- (Stage 6: define principles by which agreement which will be more just)
- Theoritic stage- lack of just reasoning
- Criticisms of Kohlberg's Theory
- Culturally Biased
- Gender Biased
- women score differently but are just as moral
- Limited
- morality conists of more than just an ability to think sophisticated
- Adulthood
- physical changes
- Only 30% of physical losses of old age are genetically based- other 70% do with psychological factors
- actions speak louder than words
- Memory
- decrease occurs with age
- Alzheimer's Disease
- Progressive and Irreversible
- Caused by Deterioation of Neurons producing Acetylcholine
- Cross-sectional studies: intelligence declines with age
- Longitudinal studies: intelligence remains stable
- Crystallized intelligence(accumulation) increases
- Fluid intelligece(ability to reason quickly) decreases with age
- Love
- like people when we perceive interactions with them are profitable
- Attraction
- "Beauty is a greater recommendation than any letter of introduction" - Aristotle
- More attractive people are treated better
- Halo effect: what is beautiful is seen as good
- beautiful people are assumed to be good
- varies to what culture defines as good
- Situational Factors(attraction and likeability)
- Proximity: liking the ones that are near
- necessary but not sufficient condition
- strong correlation between proximity and attraction/likeability
- why does it work?
- rewarding, distance is costly
- increases Familiarity
- Familiarity
- mere exposure effect
- negative = does Not work
- positive= slightly
- neutral= turns into positive
- influential become
- unfamiliarity = possible threat
- familiar----similarity----liking
- Similarity
- most demographics
- one exception: dominant and submissive people
- Reassuring to meet others like us
- Way you are is valued by someone else
- More likely to like us
- Fewer points of disagreement
- Adulthood: Life Satisfaction
- Happiness requires:
- marital satisfaction tends to decline when children arrive
- old = unhappy is a fallacy e.g. 16 countries example
